Understanding General and Special Senses: A Lab Exploration
School
Santa Fe Community College**We aren't endorsed by this school
Course
NURS MISC
Subject
Biology
Date
Dec 10, 2024
Pages
41
Uploaded by CaptainFreedomBear28
1 Chapter 6 GENERAL and SPECIAL SENSES Introduction The purpose of this lab is to explore the general and special senses and how the input from the senses is registered with and interpreted by the central nervous system. During this lab, the general senses as they relate to touch and pain and the eye and the ear will be explored. Objectives Prelab Assignment Prior to lab, study the properties and types of sensory receptors, the general senses, hearing and equilibrium, and vision in Chapter 16 of the textbook. 1. Identify the structures and functions of selected general senses. 2. Identify the external and internal anatomy of the eye. 3. Identify the external and internal anatomy of the ear. 4. Describe the functioning of the general and special senses by performing various tests of their actions. 5. Identify structures responsible for olfaction (smell) and gustation (taste).
2 General and Special Senses Exercise 1: Functions of General SensesA. Touch receptors such as Meissner’s corpusclesand Pacinian corpusclesare abundant in the skin. The density of these touch receptors varies greatly over the surface of the body, giving certain areas greater ability to “feel.” Note the image below that shows the areas of sensory cortex allocated to various regions of the body, and where the information is processed in the somatosensory gyrus. Figure 6.1 Primary Somatosensory Cotex B. Perform the two-point discrimination test (described below) to determine the smallest distance at which two points of contact can be sensed. Procedure: Your instructor will demonstrate the following: using toothpicks and a ruler, test the ability to distinguish two separate sensations when the skin is touched in two places simultaneously. Start with the toothpicks together, and then with each test move the toothpicks farther apart. Record the smallest distance at which two points can first be discriminated. This is the two-point threshold. Area Tested Face Dorsum of Hand Palm of Hand Back of Neck Two-point Threshold (in mm) C. The ability to discriminate which area of the skin is touched is integrated in the somatosensory association area of the brain. Some areas of the body can be discriminated with great accuracy, while other areas allow only crude awareness of stimulation. Your instructor will demonstrate the error of localization test described below to determine the relative number of sensory receptors in regions of the body. Procedure: For tactile localization test, the eyes should be closed. In the area being tested, touch the skin with a pen or marker. That person will then touch what he/ she perceives to be the same spot (with eyes closed!) with the pen or marker. Measure the distance between the two marks. This is the error of localization. Area Tested Fingertips Dorsum of Hand Anterior forearm Back of Neck Error of Localization (in mm)
3 Check Your Understanding 1. In what tissues or organs are Meissner’s and Pacinian corpuscles located? What is the specific function of each? ________________________________________________________ 2. Would you expect certain areas of the body to contain more sensory receptors? Why or why not? Did your results in Exercise 1 reinforce your expectations? _________________________________________________________ 3. If the lips were tested for two-point discrimination, what results would you expect? Why? _________________________________________________________ Exercise 2: Anatomy of the Eye A. Identify the following structures on models Accessory Eye Structures Fibrous Tunic Eyelid (medial and lateral commissures) Sclera, Cornea Extrinsic eye muscles Vascular Tunic Lacrimal gland, lacrimal ducts Choroid, Ciliary body, Iris, Pupil Nasolacrimal duct Neural TunicConjunctiva Retina: (rods and cones, bipolar cell, ganglion cell), Macula lutea, Fovea centralis ChambersNeural ComponentsAnterior and posterior (aqueous humor) Vitreous (vitreous humor) Optic disc Optic nerve Other Structures Lens, Suspensory ligamentLabel the following diagram: Figure 6.2 Anatomy of the Eye
4 B. Eye ball Dissection: This dissection will reinforce your study of the anatomical structures of the eye. Note: Safety glasses and gloves are required. Check Your Understanding 1. What is the function of the lacrimal gland? Why is it located in the superior and lateral portion of the orbit? ________________________________________________________ 2. Which cranial nerves innervate the extrinsic muscles of the eye to stimulate eyeball movement? ___________________________________________________________ 3. Which of the eye structures are refractory media—that is, which structures can bend light as light passes through them? ________________________________________________ 4. Which of these refractory media is an adjustable refractory medium? _____________________________________________________________ 5. Which layer of the eyeball is the toughest? Which layer is the most delicate? ________________________________________________________ 6. Is the retina attached to the inside of the eyeball over its entire surface? If not, where is it attached? In the intact eyeball, what holds the retina against the surface of the choroid? _____________________________________________________________ 7. Note the structures through which light passes to reach the retina. Write these structures in order. ____________________________________________________________ Exercise 3: Anatomy of the Ear A. Identify the following structures on models Outer Ear Middle Ear Inner Ear Auricle Ossicles: Malleus, incus, stapesOval window, Round window Pinna Auditory (Eustachian tube)Semicircular canals External auditory canal Cochlea (Organ of Corti) Tympanum ( ear drum) Vestibule (Utricle, Saccule) VIII Cranial nerve
5 Label the following structure:Figure 6.3 Anatomy of the Ear Check Your Understanding 1. Which cranial bone houses the structures involved in hearing and balance? _______________________________________________________ 2. Each sense is designed to convert a particular stimulus into the transmission of a nerve impulse. In hearing, what is the original stimulus? ______________ 3. Exactly where is the nerve impulse generated? ______________________ 4. How can a sore throat and chronic inflammation affect one’s ability to hear?_____________________________________ 5. Where are the receptors located that provide information about dynamic equilibrium and balance during change of position? ___________________________________________ 6. Which cranial nerve transmits the impulses for balance and equilibrium to the brain? ___________________________________
6 Exercise 4: Physiology of Vision and Hearing Procedure: Position your partner at a distance of 20 feet from the Snellen eye chart. Ask your partner to cover his/her eye with one hand. Check for accuracy as your partner reads each line aloud. The smallest line that your partner can read is recorded as the ratio alongside that line. Collect data for both eyes, and if your subject wears eyeglasses, test with and without eyewear. Right eye ___________ Left eye ____________ B. Astigmatism Test Procedure: 1. Ask your partner to cover one eye and look at the astigmatism chart. The subject should look at the center of the chart and note whether the radiating lines appear clear and distinct, or whether certain lines are lighter and less clear. If all lines are not clearly visualized, there are distortions on the refractory surface of either the cornea or the lens. 2. Repeat for the other eye. Right eye ___________ Left eye ____________ C. Rinne Test This procedure compares conduction of hearing through bone and air. Procedure: 1. Hold a tuning fork by its handle, strike it with a mallet, and immediately place the handle stem on the subject’s mastoid process to test for bone conduction. When the subject cannot hear by bone conduction, move the fork to the vicinity of the pinna to test air conduction. If the subject hears the sound again at the pinna, record your result as positive (+). 2. Repeat the test on the same side, but test the air conduction first at the pinna, followed by the bone conduction on the mastoid process. If the subject hears the sound again at the mastoid process, record your result as positive (+). 3. Repeat this series of tests with the other ear. Does your subject have better air conduction or bone conduction? Right Ear Left Ear Bone then air Air then bone Exercise 5: Anatomy of Olfactory and Gustatory Structures A. Identify the following structures on models Nasal cavity Cranial Nerve I Olfactory bulb, olfactory tract Olfactory epithelium B. Identify the following structures on models Tongue Papillae
1 Chapter 7 SKELETAL SYSTEM IntroductionThe skeletal system consists of the bones and connective tissues surrounding and connecting the bones. The purpose of this lab is to introduce cartilage and osseous tissue, continuing the connective tissue studies from the histology lab. In addition to the microscopic structure of cartilage and bones, time will be devoted to studying the different types of bones found in the body, as well as specific bones and associated markings within the axial and appendicular skeletons. Objectives Prelab Assignment Prior to lab, review the characteristics and functions of connective tissue. Study the sections and tables related to cartilage and bone in Chapter 5. Also, study the following in Chapter 7: tissues and organs of the skeletal system and histology of osseous tissue. Study in Chapter 8 the overview of the skeleton, the skull, and the vertebral column and thoracic cage. Prior to the second lab, study in Chapter 8 the pectoral girdle and upper limb and the pelvic girdle and lower limb. Note the bony markings in the figures as outlined in the lab exercises. 1. Identify the structures of osseous tissue. 2. Identify the different shapes of bone. 3. Identify the parts of a long bone. 4. Define specified bone marking terms. 5. Identify bones and specified structural markings of the axial skeleton. 6. Identify girdles, bones, and specified structural markings of the appendicular skeleton.
2 Skeletal System Exercise 1: Structure of Osseous Tissue A. Identify the following structures on models and microscope slides: Osteon (Haversian system) Periosteum Central (Haversian canal) Endosteum Perforating (Volkmann's canal) Blood vessels and nerve Osteocytes Bone marrow Lacunae Epiphyseal line Canaliculi Epiphyseal plate Lamellae Cartilage Spongy bone (spicules) Chondrocytes B. Label the following diagram
3 C. Draw and label the following on microscope slides 1. Osseous tissue: Compact bone Label: osteon, osteocytes, lacunae, lamellae, canaliculi, central canal Locations: _______________________________ 2. Hyaline Cartilage Label: chondrocytes, lacuna, extracellular matrix Locations:____________________________ 3. Elastic Cartilage Label: chondrocytes, elastic fibers, extracellular matrix Locations: _________________________
4 4. Fibrocartilage Label:chondrocytes, collagen fibers, extracellular matrix Locations:_________________________ Exercise 2:Parts of a Long Bone Articular cartilageDiaphysisEpiphysisSpongy boneEpiphyseal lineMedullary cavityPeriosteumEndosteumCompact bone Bone marrow Label the following diagram: Figure 7.2 Anatomical Structure of Long Bone
5 Check Your Understanding 1. Describe how this structural arrangement of compact (cortical) bone contributes to its primary function. ___________________________________________________ 2. Name and give the function of the tissue that is housed between the trabeculae of spongy (cancellous) bone. ___________________________________________________ 3. The epiphyseal line is a calcified remnant of a specialized structure. Name this structure and state its function. ___________________________________________________ Exercise 3: Parts of Axial Skeleton A. Skull Skull Bones Skull Sutures Processes Foramina Frontal Coronal Mastoid Orbital Parietal Sagittal Styloid Nasal Temporal / extrnal auditory meatus Lambdoid Foramen magnum Occipital / occipital condyles Squamous Nasal Zygomatic Fontanelles Paranasal Sinuses Maxillary AnteriorFrontalMandible/ mandibular condyles PosteriorEthmoidSphenoid/sella tursica Sphenoid Ethmoid / crista galli/ cribriform plate Maxillary Label the following diagrams:
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7 Check Your Understanding 1. Complete: Structure Occupied by Foramen Magnum Sella tursica Orbit Cribriform plate 2. Which seven bones contribute to the orbit of the eye? ______________________________________________ 3. Which is the only movable bone in the skull? ______________ 4. Which bones contribute to the palate? _______________________ 5. What is the function of paranasal sinuses? ___________________ B. Vertebra Parts of Vertebra Types of Vertebra Body (centrum Cervical: Atlas, Axis ( dens or odontoid process Transverse process Thoracic Spinous process Lumbar Vertebral foramen Sacrum Articular facets Coccyx
8 Complete the following:
9 C. Sternum and Ribs Sternum Ribs Manubrium True (costal cartilage) Body False Xiphoid Process Floating Label the following diagramExercise 4: Parts of Appendicular Skeleton A. Pectoral Girdle and Upper Limb Clavicle Ulna: olecranon process, trochlear notch, radial notch Scapula: glenoid cavity, spine, acromion, coracoid process, medial and lateral borders Carpals Humerus: head, olecranon fossa, trochlea, capitulum Metacarpals Radius: head Phalanges: proximal, middle, distal Label the following diagrams:
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11 B. Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limb Hip Bone Ilium:iliac crest Ischium: ischial spine, ischial tuberosity Pubis: pubic symphysis Acetabulum, Obturator foramenFibula: lateral malleolusFemur: head, greater and lesser trochanters Tarsals: calcaneus and talus Patella Metatarsals Tibia: tibial tuberosity, medial malleolus Phalanges: proximal, middle, distal Label the following diagrams:
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13 Exercise 5: Structural Markings of Bone Consider the structures of the axial and appendicular skeleton, list an example of each of the following surface markings: Process: ________________ Tuberosity: _______________ Crest: __________________ Trochanter: _______________ Tubercle: _______________ Spine: ___________________ Head: __________________ Facet: ___________________ Condyle: _______________ Meatus: __________________ Malleolus: ______________ Fossa: ___________________ Fissure: ________________ Foramen: _________________ Exercise 6: Bone Shapes Classify the following bones into categories according to their shapes: Long bone Irregular bone Short bone Flat bone Sutural bone Sesamoid bone Bone Classification by Shape Cervical vertebra Femur Patella Carpals Temporal bone Clavicle Metatarsal Tarsals Phalanges Check Your Understanding 1. Describe features of the male and female pelvis that allow you to distinguish between them. Male Pelvis Female Pelvis 2. Describe the location of sutural bones. _________________________________ 3. How is a sesamoid bone defined? ___________________________
1 Chapter 8 ARTICULATIONS IntroductionJoints, or articulations, are where two bones meet. They serve to link the bones into a functional skeletal system. The joints have varying degrees of movement at any given joint. In this lab, bony, fibrous, cartilaginous, and synovial joints will be considered. Objectives Prelab Assignment Prior to coming to lab, study in your textbook the sections on joints and their classifications, synovial joints (including the types of synovial joints and movements allowed at synovial joints), and the anatomy of selected diarthroses (specifically the shoulder, elbow, hip, and knee joints). 1. Describe the structural and functional classifications of joints in the body. 2. Identify the structures associated with synovial joints. 3. Describe the variety of movements allowed at synovial joints
2 Articulations Exercise 1: Types of Joints A. List examples of each of the following types of joints. Type of Joint Examples Type of Joint Examples Synarthrosis Fibrous Amphiarthrosis Cartilaginous Diarthrosis Synovial B. List examples of each of the following types of joints. Type of Joint Examples Type of Joint Examples Suture Pivot Symphysis Gliding Ball and socket Condyloid Hinge Saddle Exercise 2: Structures Associated with Bones and Synovial Joints A. Identify the following structures on diagrams and models: Joint cavity (Synovial fluid) Periosteum Ligament Synovial membrane Articular cartilage Tendon / tendon sheath Fibrous capsule Bursa Label the following diagram: Figure 8. 1. Synovial Joint
3 B. Identify the following structures on the diagram and on models. Tibial (medial)collateral ligament (MCL) Anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) Medial meniscus Lateral Meniscus Fibular (lateral)collateral ligament (LCL) Posterior cruciate ligament (PCL) Patella Patellar ligament Femur Tibia Fibula Label the following diagram: Figure 8.2 Anterior View of Knee Joint C. Use the light box to view X-rays of various normal and abnormal joints. Identify on x-rays, various joint structures listed above.
4 Exercise 3: Movements Allowed at Synovial Joints Define the following body movements. Give an example of a joint where each movement may occur. Note which are considered “special movements.”Movement Definition Everyday Usage Application Flexion Extension Hyperextension Abduction Adduction Rotation Circumduction Pronation Supination Inversion Eversion Dorsiflexion Plantarflexion Protraction Retraction Elevation Depression Check Your Understanding For each of the following activities, state which joints are involved in the specified movements, and also state which movements are occurring at each joint, and then share their findings with the entire lab. Note: Most movements have several components, so it is beneficial to actually perform the motion to see exactly which joints are involved. a. Climbing the stairs (focus on legs): ________________________________________________________________ b. Answering the telephone (focus on arms): ________________________________________________________ c. Bending over to touch toes (focus on torso and arms): _______________________________________________________ d. Shrugging shoulders while shaking head: _________________________________________________________ e. Playing “patty-cake”: ______________________________________________________
1 Chapter 9 MUSCULAR SYSTEMIntroductionThe muscular system consists of skeletal muscles, which through their connection to bones via tendons help to produce movement of the body. In addition to movement, skeletal muscle assists in heat production, posture, and glycemic control. Smooth and skeletal muscles work to control body openings (such as the mouth or anus) and passage of substances from one place to another (such as food through the gastrointestinal system). The purpose of this lab is to explore microscopic and macroscopic features of skeletal, smooth, and cardiac muscle. Specific skeletal muscles, associated attachment points, and actions will be introduced. Objectives Prelab Assignment Prior to attending lab, study in your textbook the structural and functional organization of muscles; the types and characteristics of muscular tissue (Chapter 11); microscopic anatomy of skeletal muscle (Chapter 11); and the nerve-muscle relationship (Chapter 11). Study the specific muscles of the body as outlined in the lab manual. Be sure to consider the location, name, and action of each required muscle. 1. Distinguish the three specific muscle tissue types on microscope slides. 2. Identify structures of the skeletal muscle fiber. 3. Identify structures in a sarcomere. 4. Identify specific skeletal muscles and describe an action for each. 5. Describe how skeletal muscles are attached to the framework of the body
2 Muscular System Exercise 1: Histology of Muscle Tissue Distinguish between the three different types of muscle fibers. Identify and draw the histological characteristic findings of each. A. Skeletal Muscle Fiber Shape of fiber: _________ Number of nuclei per fiber: _____ Striations: Yes No B. Smooth Muscle Fiber Shape of fiber: _________ Number of nuclei per fiber: _____ Striations: Yes No C. Cardiac Muscle Fiber Shape of fiber: _________ Number of nuclei per fiber: _____ Striations: Yes No
3 Check Your Understanding 1. Describe the structure of intercalated discs: _________________________________ 2. What is the function of intercalated discs? _________________________________. 3. Why are they only found in cardiac muscle? _____________ Exercise 2: Skeletal Muscle Fiber (Cell) A. Identify the following structures on models. Endomysium, sarcolemma, sarcoplasm Sarcoplasmic reticulum, terminal cisternae, T tubule, triad Myofibril, nucleus, mitochondria Sarcomere, myofilaments Label the following diagram: Figure 9.1Skeletal Muscle Fiber
4 B. Sarcomere Identifythe following structures of the sarcomere and label the following photo: A band, I band, Z disc, M line Myofilaments: a. Thick: Myosin heads and tailsb. Thin: Tropomyosin, troponin, actinFigure 9.2: Sarcomere Model Exercise 3: Neuromuscular Junction Histology Identify the following structures on the microscope slide, then label the diagram. Axon branches, axon terminal, neuromuscular junction, skeletal muscle fiber Figure 9.3 Neuromuscular Junction
5 Exercise 4: Skeletal Muscles and Their Actions A. Muscles of the Head and Neck Frontalis Raise eyebrows Orbicularis oculi Close eye, blinking, squinting Zygomaticus Smiling Orbicularis oris Close mouth, purse lips, “kissing muscle”Masseter Elevate mandible, chewing Temporalis Elevate mandible Buccinator Suckling Platysma Depress mandible, shaving muscle Sternocleidomastoid Flex head, rotate head to opposite direction Figure 9.4 Muscles of Head and NeckAnteriorLateral
6 B. Muscles of the Shoulder and Arm Pectoralis major Flex and adduct arm Pectoralis minor Pull scapula forward Deltoid Extend and abduct arm Trapezius Elevate scapula Latissimus dorsi Adduct arm Rotator cuff muscles(SITS) Supraspinatus Infraspinatus Teres minor Subscapularis Stabilize shoulder joint Figure 9.5 Muscles of Shoulder and Arm Anterior Posterior
7 C. Abdominal and Vertebral Muscles Rectus abdominis Flex spine External oblique / aponeurosis Compress abdomen Internal oblique Compress abdomen Transversus abdominis Compress abdomen Erector spinae Extend spine Fig 9.6 Abdominal and Vertebral Muscles D. Respiratory Muscles External intercostals Inspiration Internal intercostals Expiration Diaphragm Inspiration Figure 9.7 Respiratory Muscles Anterior Posterior Lateral Inferior
8 E. Muscles of the Upper Limb Biceps Flex forearm Brachialis Flex forearm Brachioradialis Flex forearm Triceps Extend forearm Figure 9.8 Muscles of the Upper Limb F. Muscles of the Lower Limb: Anterior Iliopsoas Flex thigh Tensor fasciae latae Flex thigh Gracilis Adduct thigh Quadriceps femoris Muscle Rectus femoris Vastus lateralis Vastus medialis Vastus intermedius Extend knee Sartorius Crossing leg ( flex thigh, medially rotate leg) Tibialis anterior Dorsiflexion of foot Anterior Posterior
9 Figure 9.9 Muscles of Lower Limb Anterior View Posterior Gluteus maximus Extend and lateral rotate thigh Gluteus medius Abduct hip Hamstring muscle Biceps femoris Semimembranosus Semitendinosus Flex knee Gastrocnemius (Calcaneal tendon) Plantar flexion of foot Soleus (Calcaneal tendon) Plantar flexion of foot Anterior
10 Figure 9.10 Muscles of Lower Limb Posterior ViewCheck Your Understanding1. Name two muscles in the body that have straight muscle fibers: _____________________________________ 2. Name the muscle that has an antagonistic action to: Triceps brachii ______________ Rectus femoris ______________ 3. When turning the head to the right side, which sternocleidomastoid is contracting? _______________ Posterior
11 4. Which two muscles synergistically close the jaw? ________________________ ____________________ 5. Which is the deepest abdominal muscle? _______________________ 6. Which muscles are responsible for inspiration? _______________________ _______________________ 7. Due to nerve damage, a patient has a clinical condition called drop foot. His toes are dragging and he has difficulty lifting them while walking. Which muscle is affected? _________________________ 8. Which muscles will extend the arms during pushups? _______________________ 9. Winking, blinking and squinting are muscular actions of ____________________. 10. Baseball pitchers are more prone to injury of the ____________________ group of muscles.