Exploring Fatherhood and Rites of Passage in Diverse Cultures
School
Laurentian University**We aren't endorsed by this school
Course
ANTR 2005
Subject
Sociology
Date
Dec 10, 2024
Pages
8
Uploaded by JESSICASEIP1111
1Assignment 3Jessica Seip Department of Social Work Laurentian UniversityANTR 2005EL 12 – Child Rearing Across Cultures Dr. Moira FergusonNovember 24, 2023
2Barry Hewlett's study of the AKABarry Hewlett studied the AKA tribe and found it interesting how long fathers tended to their children. This varied greatly from what was the norm in many Western societies. In Western societies, fathers spent much less time with their children and often engaged and bondedwith them through rough play. In Western societies, men contribute indirectly to their children's welfare by ensuring economic stability. While studying the AKA, Hewlett found that husbands and wives worked together in economic activities and relied on each other considerably this way.He found that hunter-gatherers' lifestyle facilitates this closeness and ability for fathers to contribute more time to their children. Hewlett identified four critical factors in bonding betweenfathers and infants. During his study, he argued that the quantity rather than the quality of time is the primary importance to a child's development and well-being. His findings supported the idea that when fathers spend more time with their sons, their sons gain precious knowledge of masculinity. Theyare also less likely to devalue those with more feminine characteristics, which is attributed to a higher degree of societal equality. It is a common practice in AKA society for fathers to sleep with their children. Hewlett's research found that fathers are at most a few feet from the children throughout at least half of the day. Co-sleeping with parents, though frowned upon by medical and parenting experts in Western society, may facilitate better communication between parents and their children. It is also a widely held belief among Westerners that children will become too dependent, especially during times when they should show some degree of independence if they are tended to too much. Hewlett's research does not support this notion. He found that despite AKA parents tending to infants constantly and tending to their every need, children still develop into
3independent and autonomous beings. Hewlett found that indulgent care does not lead to dependent children and may lead to increased trust and self-esteem. It was found that father involvement was consistent with values shared within the AKA society. Such values encouraged a lack of violence and war and flexible gender roles, which allowed men and women to work together and contribute equally to society. In Western cultures,it was often held that it was important for fathers to spend quality time with their children. However, AKA societies and child development within them reveal that the amount of time fathers spend with children holds importance that is just as great, if not greater.Arnold Van Gennep’s research on initiation ceremonies Arnold Van Gennep first coined the term "rite of passage," which is still widely used in anthropology today. A rite of passage is a ritual or ceremony that signifies the end of one life phase and the entry into a new life phase. A new life phase is one where an individual faces new responsibilities and capabilities, often a change in sexual or social status. According to the New World Encyclopedia, its purpose is to prepare people for their new phase of life and re-entry into society in their new social position. It is related to the idea that there are multiple groups within asociety and that each best fits into one (or some) group based on their qualities, which determines their place within society.Arnold Van Gennep identified two types of rites of passage. The first marks the transitionfrom one social status to another during an individual's lifetime, and the second is a rite of passage that marks a critical point in time, such as a new moon or solstice. In his research, he found that specific changes in one's life, such as marriage, death, birth, and puberty, are consistently commemorated in every culture. Other rites that are celebrated among many cultures
4are the change of place or social situation, rites of passage that are practiced in some cultures are related to academic and professional achievements, sports, military and specific religious ceremonies.Van Gennep believes that practicing rites of passage is essential for everyday and healthy life within society as it creates social stability by being a source that relieves pressure. Participating in rites of passage is also very important for socialization, individual development, and community development. When someone moves to a new stage, the pressure building from the previous stage is released, facilitating health and clarity.This theorist identifies many essential features of a rite of passage. He identifies three in particular; the first is a period where an individual becomes separated from their previous way oflife. The second is a transition from one status to a new one. The third is a process of introduction to the new social status and a new way of life. He identifies what is called a "Liminal" state, which is characterized by ambiguity, openness and indeterminacy. It is a time when one often feels very disoriented.Understanding the Sambia CultureThe Sambia, an African tribe, partake in a variety of different customs and traditions that are uncommon and even unheard of in Western cultures. At first glance, many of these practices, such as their practice of insemination, appear to be quite deviant, especially when it is analyzed from a Western perspective. Inseminating younger boys is a secret ritual and tradition practiced by the Sambia. It is when young boys consume semen from other men in order to prove their own manliness by performing fellatio. There are a number of reasons why a westerner may identify this as a deviant behaviour. In western culture children taking part in sexual acts,
5especially with older individuals is not accepted. Children are seen as vulnerable and innocent, and for this reason, there are a number of laws and regulations to protect children from this kind of activity. In addition to age, this tradition is performed between two males, which is historicallyviewed as a deviant behaviour in Western culture. Homosexual acts were condemned by westerners until recent decades when sexual revolutions took place and it began to be more accepted.When we work towards understanding this ritual from a perspective of cultural relativism, it appears much less deviant. By first understanding how the Sambia perform rituals that reflect their history, religion/spirituality and culture, we find that it may have little to do withsexuality. The concern with sexuality is one created entirely by Westerners.The history of the Sambia is heavily involved with wars, so the Sambia are obsessed withwarfare. This necessitates the requirement for their society to have a large quantity of reliable warriors. According to Herdt's account, the fear of war conditioned an aggressive and paranoid masculine worldview. A strong and reliable warrior could only be achieved by a man who possesses a large amount of "jergundu". Jergundu is only gained through the insemination ritual. The Sambia believe that when a boy ingests semen, it creates and maintains masculinity. A man'sentire existence depends upon it. If a man runs low in his supply of burgundy, is considered less masculine, and without participating in the insemination ritual, boys will remain boys— small and weak. It was a shared fear among parents that if their boys did not partake in this initiation/ritual, they would not become fierce warriors. The Sambia are currently in fear of war and believe they should always be prepared. Only highly masculine men can be considered fierceand perform well in war. For this reason, boys must participate in the insemination ritual. The obsession with war is also reflected in the Sambia's religious practices.
6The Sambia's religion is concerned with Shamanism. Shamans played an essential role in wars. Herdt's research found that Shamans gain their unequal powers through the insemination ritual. In addition to notions related to religion and war, the insemination ritual held importance in terms of broader cultural values and social structures. Men wanted to be masculine to participate in war and ensure they could defend themselves and their families and property. Parents not only feared that their sons would not become fierce warriors but feared that they would sexually engage exclusively with men for the remainder of their lifetime, which would inhibit their desire and ability to reproduce. Men also internalize the fear of being viewed as a "rubbish man." A rubbish man is a man who did not ingest enough semen. The outcome of this isthat he spends too much time with women and has cowardly characteristics. This is problematic as he will not be able to find himself a wife and will not be able to father children, which does little to contribute to society.Men's masculinity has a substantial impact on how the entire society functions, as there isa significant emphasis on gender roles. Women and men are separated physically within society, as they reside in different locations, and there is sexual polarity in economic roles. Women are viewed as pollutants. They take semen from men for personal gain. It is essential in this culture that men who are not married and who have not participated in the insemination ritual avoid women. Further cultural beliefs are attributed to the initiation of insemination rather than the basic biology that Westerners are familiar with. According to the Sambia belief system, it is semen that creates solid bones and muscles, so the more semen that a man takes during initiations, the stronger his body will be.
7When analyzing why the Sambia engage in this ritual rather than just looking at this ritualthrough a Western lens, it is clear that this is not an activity driven by gaining only sexual pleasure. Instead, the Sambia participate in this ritual because they believe it will improve their health and abilities and enhance their contribution to society. After understanding the reasoning, it appears to have very little to do with sexual gratification and everything to do with ensuring their society is protected and functioning well.
8References:Encyclopedia, N. W. (2020). Arnold van Gennep. Visit the main page. https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Arnold_van_Gennep#Work Herdt, G. (1991). The Sambia: Ritual, sexuality, and change in Papua New Guinea. Ann Arbor: United States: Thompson/WadsworthHewlett, Barry. (1991). Intimate Fathers: The Nature an context of aka Pygmy Paternal infant Care. Ann Arbor: University Michigan Press. Norbeck, E., & Alexander, R. C. (2023, October 5). Rite of Passage. Encyclopædia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/rite-of-passage