Understanding Semantic Memory: Key Concepts and Models
School
Louisiana State University**We aren't endorsed by this school
Course
PSYC 4033
Subject
Psychology
Date
Dec 11, 2024
Pages
8
Uploaded by DeaconKangaroo4668
EXAM 2 STUDY GUIDEChapter 7- prospective memory , semantic memory (chapter 18, 9), know the models and whatthey're good at, mnemonics chapter 15 etc.) - extra credit words to remember in serial order(learn a technique to study for that) will say with the numbers60% multiple choice5-6 short answerSemantic MemoryChapter 9/18 (p 582-5)●When our memories do not refer to specific events but are more encyclopedic.●Ex. reacting to a dog, a chairPriming-Remembering one concept makes related ideas more available●It is a largely automatic, implicit process, butcan be affected by conscious effort.Semantic memory is structured based on meaning.●Activation of a certain memory activates those around it, making them more readilyavailable.●Can also be characterized by emotional state- more of a response to happy terms whenhappy.A typical priming paradigm involveslexical decision-people are given strings of letters andasked to indicate whether they are words.●A word that is called a prime, is followed by a target.●People respond faster to a word related to the original word.●Priming helps us detect inconsistencies.Concepts in semantic memory that have more interconnections are retrieved faster due toincreased retrieval pathways.mediated priming-the connection between “lion” and “stripes” is mediated by “tiger.” mediatedpriming is more fragile than direct priming and is sometimes not observed at all.Inhibition-suppressing related concepts during retrieval to help find faster.●ex. people retrieve the concept “salmon” for the category FISH slower if they hadrecently retrieved several other examples of fish.●only occurs if people are actively retrieving informationHow is Semantic different from episodic?●If all you had to go on were episodic memories of specific instances, then every time youencountered a dog you would need to start all over again figuring out how you shouldreact.●The fan effect in episodic, opposite is true for Semantic.Semantic dementia-●loss of semantic knowledge, impaired word recognition
●networks are fraying, natural networks fray faster than artificial, SD has poorertaxonomicCategory vs. Attributescategorization- two or more entities are treated as though they are equivalent.●allows us to draw on prior experience in new situations.●Hascentral tendencyor averaged category ideal.●graded membership-Mentally, some members are better members of the category thanothers.●Ex. robin is often thought of as being a better member of the category bird than ispenguin.●Family resemblance-Different features may be shared among several instances.●three levels of categorization:basic, subordinate, and superordinate●artifact categories (things that people make) and natural kind categories (things thatare found in nature).The basic level-●the one at which we operate at most often.●categories are defined by features with enough detail to allow us to treat differentmembers as similar but without more detail than is necessary.●retrieved better than the others●Ex. saw, dog, chair, or drumThe subordinate level-●provides detailed information about specific portions of a basic category.●Ex. camping saw, miniature poodle, leather recliner, and kettle drum.The superordinate level-●provides very general information that captures a range of basic level categories.●Ex. tool, pet, furniture, and musical instrument.Typicality- it is easier to verify a sentence if the object is a typical member, rather than anunusual member (ex. robin is a bird, a penguin is a bird)Models of semantic memory--know how they work and what they can explain1. Collins & Quillan's semantic network●connections based on logic (sub-set relationships)●Cognitive Economy: storage of shard properties just once at a higher level node●Spreading Activation: activity that spreads out along any link connected to activated node●Deals with hierarchical organization2. Collins & Loftus spreading activation-●connections are based on personal experience
●links differ in length or strengthen, depending on how related they are; activation spreadsbetween concepts●Spreading activation-you have a bunch of concepts in your head that are attached toeach other and attached by a thick (easy to activate) or thin line (partially activate)3. Prototype model●prototype model-For this view, categories are defined by a mental representation that isan average of all category members●suggests that prototypes were derived and used to make decisions●If we can readily derive prototypes from things as meaningless as dot patterns, surely thesame mental mechanisms are involved for deriving categories of our everydayexperiences.4. Exemplar model●exemplar theory-people use all category members to make decisions.●captures central tendency, graded membership, and family resemblance, as well asinformation about category size, variability, correlated attributes, and any newinformation about the category.●Because categorization is always using all the memory traces,new experiences havemore influence.●category formation involves adjusting connections between the striatum (in the basalganglia) and sensory association cortex.5. Hub and spoke modelHow do people with different types of brain damage name things--what does that tell you aboutwhat is wrong with them?Distinct types of semantic memory-Taxonomic relations- refer to shared features, such as knowing that “horse” and “cow” are bothfarm animals.thematic/association relations- refer to co-occurrence, such as knowing that “dog” and “leash”go together.Thematic relations are typically retrieved faster than taxonomic relations.Evidence they are organized the same or differently in semantic memory:●right-handers tend to associate positive concepts with the right half of space, whereasleft-handers do the opposite●Another example is that information retrieval reflects perceptual qualities, such as theamount of visual area taken up by a property.●ex. for the concept “fish”, the property “scales” is easy to retrieve compared to “eye”.
●For abstract concepts (e.g., barrier) we tend to rely more on thematic relations (whattends to occur together), but for concrete concepts (e.g., mushroom) we rely more ontaxonomic relations. (things that are typically grouped together)●Emotionmay be tied to someabstract concepts.●nouns tend to activate more of the sensory cortex, whereas verbs of action tend toactivate the motor cortex.Semantic Memories are:a) the sum of our long-term experiences (e.g., all of your encounters with lemons)b) biased by our recent experiences (e.g., using lemons to make lemonade)c) the context and the current task (finding lemons in the grocery store)d) your current mental state (e.g., what was recently primed in semantic memory).Thus, while semantic memories are often depicted as stable and enduring they are dynamic.Schemas-●Schemas-Semantic memories for commonly experienced aspects of life.●Can select out those aspects of an event that are more relevant and important●abstract away the critical ideas●help draw inferences through a process of interpretation●allow missing information and gaps to be filled●facilitate the integration of otherwise separate bits of information into a single coherentmemory.●During retrieval, schemas can help reconstruct details that were forgotten.●For standard sequences of events, people can use scripts.●These provide a guide for people to know what the correct order of events should be.●While schemas and scripts have powerful influences on memory, they do not alwaysdominate. Under the right circumstances, people can disregard their schemas and scriptsand more accurately remember the details that were actually encountered.Prospective MemoryChapter 7Prospective memory--types, lab tasks used to test this●prospective memory is remembering to do things in the future●we spontaneously engage in prospective memory about 15% of our waking time●people tend to be under-confident for laboratory prospective memory tasks andover-confident in everyday life●Once a task is completed, although it is no longer as active in memory, it may bereactivated later, causing problems, such as doing a task again●Prospective memory has some components that are not found in retrospective memory.●involves: (1) monitoring the environment for the cue to do something, (2) rememberingwhat to do in the future, (3) retrieving the memory of what to do, and (4) actually doingit.
●Number 2 is like retrospective memory. Thus, prospective memory depends somewhat onretrospective memory but not vice versa.●People who complain about memory problems are more likely to have prospectivememory problems●There are two traditional types of prospective memory:event-based and time-based●Event-based prospective memory-a need to remember to do something when some eventoccurs●ex. remembering to give people a message when you see them.●Attention is drawn away from the prospective memory task when it is divided up amongdifferent things in the environment that we need to watch out for.●Time-based prospective memory-when people need to remember to do something at acertain time or after a certain time interval.●Ex. Remembering to call home on Mother’s Day or to take another pill in four hours areexamples of time-based prospective memory.●Time-based prospective memory is harder than event-based prospective memory●With event-based prospective memory, there is something in the environment thatreminds you to do something. With time-based prospective memory, it is up to you aloneto remember.●location-based prospective memory-Here, people are to do something when they are in aparticular place●Ex. when they are at a certain store in the mall●differs from other types of prospective memory because changes in location are a way todefine new events.●Focal memoryis a key part of OCD, prospective memory is almost always focal forthem.Mnemonics/Super memoryChapter 15 (p.500-8)Problems with semantic memory--e.g., semantic illusionsSemantic Illusions-Naïve Physics-MnemonicsKnow the types of naive mnemonics and be able to explain them/give an exampleTechnical mnemonics--be able to explain each of these techniques--Method of Loci, Peg wordmethod, linking imagery, narrative story, key or link word method, number-letter recoding,name-face mnemonics3. Linking imagery
picture all of the images laced together, ex. a necklace and shoe, a shoe wearing a necklace4. Narrative storyThere was a shoe who worked at the necklace store5. Key word or link-word for learning foreign language vocabularyDutch- Nootmuskaat - link to what it sounds like in english ie. “note Musket”Means nutmeg, draw a picture such as a treble clef on a gun shooting out pumpkin pie(nutmeg)Remembering dates- associate each number with a letter or two letters, make a word or phraseout of the dateName Face mnemonic- pick something distinctive about a person that will not change, associateit with their name- i.e. hairline arches, McDonaldHow do technical mnemonics work?●Elaborative processing during encoding.●Link to prior knowledge●Link items to each other●Use imagery, organization, distinctive processing, extra cues (e.g. motor movements)●Effective retrieval structure●retrieval cue in the mnemonic●Item serves as retrieval cue for next●Retrieval cue in the contextMemory experts-●Memory championships- Ron●Savant syndrome and skylines●S. (Shereshevskii) - had synesthesia, across all five senses●Mental walks on streets of moscow- method of loci●synesthesia●Guy on the street with the dollar bills, S. ,●Mnemonics(LAST TIME: Guy on the street with the dollar bills, S. ), THIS WEEK: S.F., F.W., DanielTammetForgettingChapter 8Know the 7 sins of memory and why they might be the result of something that is useful
Incidental forgetting--know how the forgetting curve looks for each of: Ebbinghaus exp't,yearbook exp't, foreign language forgetting, algebra forgetting, procedural memory forgettingInterference: RI and PI (be able to distinguish these!), release from PI, Part-set cuing, retrievalinduced forgettingDirected forgetting--item method and result, list method and resultIntentional retrieval suppression--think no think experiment and resultsAmnesiaChapter 10Amnesia--know the four different typesBe able to define and give the characteristics of the four types of amnesiaClive Wearing--what is his amnesia like? What can he do, what can't he doCH same as aboveKnow Ribot's gradientWhat happens to memory after ECT? Why is this procedure used, and why might it work?HMwhat is his amnesia like? What can he do, what can't he do? Know how he performed onthe experiments they tested him on.What is Korsakoff's syndrome and what kinds of memory problems do these people have?Transient Global amnesia--who is likely to get this?Psychogenic amnesia--what is a fugue state?Autobiographical MemoryChapter 12Autobiographical memory --what is this? What methods are used to investigate itReminiscence bump--know exp'ts that find this, including the cross cultural experiment●Possibly could be due to distinction●Could be neurological peak in 20s●Some propose is from the stabilization of a self-narrative that occurs in second and thirddecade of life
Explanations for the reminiscence bump, and experiments that support.Flashbulb memory--definition●Something vivid in your mind●Public tragic events that are unexpectedCharacteristics of Flashbulb (FB) memories●Seem like a picture of a scene●Who you were with●What you were doing●When you heard●Where you were●How you heard●Your affect, and that of othersTwo theories:●Special mechanism (“NOW PRINT”) that preserves these memories in a special way●They are normal memories, but may feel different as a function of rehearsal oremotionality●If now print mechanism is cause of flashbulbs- memories should not fade over timeKnow the Sept 11 FB memory study in detail--which theory does it support.●Had people describe what happened to them on Sep. 11. Also had them describe the daybefore. Came back years later and asked again. Stories changed just as much as regularmemories.●Memory isn’t better, but your belief in your ability to relive the event and to believe thatthe memory is accurate is higher. You have a bias because of its emotionality●Flashbulb memories stay first person overtime●Everyday memories transfer into watching it like a movie over time●People rehearsed flashbulb memories by talking about them more- this could increaseyour memory, can also interfere with personal memories- story changes.Flashbulb memories appear to be susceptible to forgetting and reconstructive processesthat affect normal memories. Maybe they just seem more vivid b/c of the emotionassociated with them. They are also probably more rehearsed than most normal memories.