Understanding Earth's Origins and Composition: A Study Guide

School

Langara College**We aren't endorsed by this school

Course

BIOL 1118

Subject

Biology

Date

Dec 11, 2024

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Uploaded by BrigadierSheepPerson709

THE PHYSICAL WORLDBIOL 1118, Ch. 3Dr. Kyra JanotFall Term 2023Origins and Composition of EarthOrigins of the UniverseTheorised that the universe started as a single infinitely ______dense and hot______________________point, which explosively expanded in an event called “the Big Bang”oContinues to expand today at a slower, more measurable rateInitially, matter consisted of just hydrogen (H) and helium (He) in a diffuse cloudo_________Gravity___________________caused these elements to aggregate into larger masses that compressed under higher pressure and temperatureoOnce pressure and temperature reached a certain level, nuclear fusion began to occur, releasing energy and forming _____heavier elements_______________________o_88_______naturally occurring elements exist today, but H and He still make up 99.9% of universe’s massOur Solar SystemEarth is one of _______eight____________planets that (along with other interplanetary objects) orbits around the sunoThe sun is just one star of billions and billions!Earth is the third closest planet to the sun, and one of four terrestrial planetsoTerrestrial planets are dense and formed by condensing of ___________heavier elements_________________like iron, nickel, magnesium, aluminum, and siliconoOther terrestrial planets are Mercury, Venus, and MarsIntense heating from solar radiation causes _________lighter elements___________________ like H and He to disperse outwards, so more distant planets are large and gaseous Earth is the only planet that we knowsustains life, but the universe contains ~1021other planetary systems orbiting around other stars – high probability life has emerged elsewhereComposition of EarthEarth is comprised of layers:1.Core~3,500 km in diameter, molten metal, rich in iron and nickelHigh heat results from __________radioactive decay__________________of unstable isotopes (e.g., uranium)2.MantleLess ________dense____________________than the core, ~2,800 km thickMinerals are in semi-liquid state called magma

THE PHYSICAL WORLDBIOL 1118, Ch. 3Dr. Kyra JanotFall Term 2023Lighter elements like silicon, oxygen, and magnesium are arranged in ________compounds______________3.Crust_____Oceanic__________________crust is youngerand ~15 km thick, _____continental__________________crust isolder and 20-60 km thickComplex, variable composition compared to core andmantleThe upper mantle and crust are sometimes referred to together as the lithosphereMinerals Vs. RocksGeologically, mineralsare solid substances with a specific chemical composition and well-ordered __________crystal structure__________________oCould be made of a single element (e.g., metals such as gold and silver are found naturally in mineral form), but most are compoundsRocks are naturally occurring ____solid aggregates________________of mineralsoMay or may not have crystalline componentsTypes of RocksRocks can be categorised based on the geologic processes that led to their formation1.Igneous rocks (e.g., basalt and granite) form when _______molten lava_____________________coolsBasaltic rocks are heavy, dark, fine-grained rocks that result from ________rapid____________________cooling at surface of crust; major component of __________oceanic__________________crust, and may form volcanic islands (e.g., those in the Hawaiian Archipelago)Granitic rocks are lighter in colour and density, course-grained rocks with visible crystals that form via ________slower____________________cooling beneath the surface; major componentof _______________continental_____________crust2.Sedimentary rocksform when particles from other rocks, minerals, or dead ___________organic materials________________are compressed and become lithifiedCompression comes from the weight of water and other sediments

THE PHYSICAL WORLDBIOL 1118, Ch. 3Dr. Kyra JanotFall Term 2023E.g., sandstone, dolomite, shale3.Metamorphic rocksform existing _________igneous___________________or ______sedimentary______________________rocks are put under immense heat and pressureHeat and pressure typically come from primary rocks being carried into deeper layers of the__________lithosphere__________________by movement of Earth’s crustGeological DynamicsGeologic Time ScaleThe Geologic Time Scale (GST) is broken down into four Eons, which are further broken down into Eras,Periodsand EpochsoBoundaries are based on observed rapid changes in _________ _mineralogical__________________or _________species___________________composition in the fossil record, hypothesised to correspond with major evolutionary events like mass extinctionsoMass extinctions are estimated based on sudden drops in diversity within the ___ fossil record ___________________MeteoritesMeteoritesare “small” ___________ rocky or metallic_________________objects from space that frequently strike Earth at speeds from 10-100 km/s (i.e., 360-3,600 km/hr!)oSmaller meteorites burn up in the atmosphere due to ______friction______________________, but someare large enough to make it through to impactoVery large meteorites don’t strike Earth often, but when they do they can cause significant damage to nearby ecosystemsThe end-Cretaceous extinction, also known as the Cretaceous-Paleogene (K-Pg) extinction, was the event that led to the extinction of all ______non-avian dinosaurs______________________oHypothesised to be caused by a meteorite that struck Earth 66 mya (the Impact Hypothesis)oResulted in the extinction of 60-80% of all___________multicellular species_________________

THE PHYSICAL WORLDBIOL 1118, Ch. 3Dr. Kyra JanotFall Term 2023Tectonic ForcesAccording to the Theory of Plate Tectonics, Earth’s crust is divided into huge plates that glide over the _______mantle____________________from areas of creation to areas of destruction via convectionoPlates are _________created___________________via upwelling of magma from the mantle, which rises to the surface and cools upon contact with wateroPlates are __________destroyed__________________in other areas via subduction of crust back into the mantle, where heat causes them to melt back down

THE PHYSICAL WORLDBIOL 1118, Ch. 3Dr. Kyra JanotFall Term 2023What causes molten magma to well up to thesurface? Pressure release And EruptionWhat causes magma from subduction zones to movetowards areas of upwelling?It moves up because of heat and pressureVolcanoesVolcanoesare vents where ______magma______________________from the mantle erupts through the crust tothe surface, where it is then called lavaoFormed wherever there is a pathway for magma to reach the surface, could happen along ridges of ________plate formation____________________OR zones of _______subduction_____________________Volcanic eruptions can occur with enormous force and cause substantial damageo_______Particulate___________________ejected into the atmosphere can reflect solar energy, resultingin coolingoLava may ignite vegetationoForce of the explosion may cause ________mudslides__________________and _________earthquakes_________________Earthquakes

THE PHYSICAL WORLDBIOL 1118, Ch. 3Dr. Kyra JanotFall Term 2023Earthquakesoccur wherever there is a release of geological stressoCommon causes include ________slipping____________________of plates across one another and _______volcanic explosions_____________________Tremors may cause damages to both natural features and human infrastructureoCan result in _______fires___________________if electrical or gas lines are disruptedoLoosening of soil can cause____________landslides________________and sinking of structuresoIf earthquake is under the ocean, it can trigger a tsunamiTsunamisTsunamisare (very) large waves typically caused by underwater earthquakesoCould also be caused by ______landslides_________and _____volcanic explosions ____________________oUsually not visible in open ocean, but can reach hundreds of metres in height when they reach shoreWhat causes tsunamis to increase in height as they approach shore?As the tsunami gets closer the seafloor also gets more shallow which slows down and bunches up the water which causes it to rise in height and power Tsunamis can result in massive death tolls via drowning, collapsing architecture, or even floating debris moving athigh speedsoMade worse by poor planning or lack of appropriate _______warning systems_____________________oCan also be made worse by environmental degradation of _____natural barriers_______________________(e.g., coastal vegetation and coral reefs)GlaciationGlaciersare sheets of ice formed by _______accumulation_____________________and ____compression________________________of deep snowpackoMay occur on land or extend into ocean, can be several km thickoCommon in high latitudes and altitudesoCurrently cover ___~10%_____ of Earth’s surfaceGlaciation occurs when ice sheets advance significantly, due to an extended period of global cooling (i.e., an ice age)oDuring glaciation, ________sea levels___________________may _______drop_____________________significantly as water is tied up in ice on landoMost recent was Wisconsin glaciation 85,000 to 11,000 years ago, when ___~30%__________ of Earth’s surface (including most of Canada) was covered in ice

THE PHYSICAL WORLDBIOL 1118, Ch. 3Dr. Kyra JanotFall Term 2023Glacial LandformsAs glaciers move they _______erode_____________________and carve out underlying terrain and transport debris to new areas – when the glaciers __________melt__________________, the debris is depositedoMany aspects of Canada’s current landscape have been shaped by glacier advance and retreatGive two examples of geographic features that have resulted from glacial action in British Columbia:Weathering and ErosionWeatheringoccurs when rocks/minerals are physically or chemically __________broken down__________________by environmental forces (biotic or abiotic)Erosionoccurs when rocks and soil are ___________moved to another location________________________via water, ice, wind, or gravityoUsually slow, but sometimes rapid (e.g., landslides)oLandscapes that are eroded get flatter over timeBoth weathering and erosion rates are impacted by factors like:oThe slope of the landoSpeed of wind or water flowoHow much vegetation is presentoHardness of material being weathered or erodedIn what ways might human activity impact weathering or erosion rates by impacting the factors above? 1.Diverting water flow2.Deforestation (especially of old growth, along coastal areas)3.Excavation for construction purposes4.Mining5.Climate warming> glaciers melting> sea levels rising6.In weather fluctuations 7.Wildfires impacting vegetation8.Recreation9.Agriculture + roads (change in land use)10.Rain pH11.Oil extraction

THE PHYSICAL WORLDBIOL 1118, Ch. 3Dr. Kyra JanotFall Term 2023Geologic RecyclingSediments that result from weathering and erosion can be “recycled” as part of the rock cycleoAs materials are eroded, they are transported to _________lower altitudes___________________and eventually the ocean where they are deposited on the ocean flooroOver millions of years, sediments are built up and compressed to form sedimentary rock – if buried deep enough, could then become ______metamorphic rock______________________oWhen tectonic plates collide, sedimentary rock, metamorphic rock, and igneous rock may be pushed upward as part of a new _______mountain range_____________________, bringing materials back up to higher altitudes againThe Hydrosphere and the AtmosphereWater Reservoirs of the HydrosphereThe hydrosphere encompasses all the reservoirs on Earth that contain water, including:oThe _______ocean___________________(~97.4%)o_____Surface waters_____________________located on landmasses, e.g., glaciers, lakes, streams, and rivers (~2.3%)o______Groundwater____________________, which varies in depth and accessibility (~0.32%)o_________Atmospheric water_________________, which may exist as a gas, vapour, or solid ice crystals (~0.001%)

THE PHYSICAL WORLDBIOL 1118, Ch. 3Dr. Kyra JanotFall Term 2023The Hydrologic CycleThe hydrologic cycle describes how water moves between reservoirs, and can be considered on a local or a globalleveloGlobally, all reservoirs are in ________equilibrium____________________– water is never lost from the system, it just moves between reservoirsoOn a local level _______input and output_____________________do not necessarily match, and an area could dry out or become floodedWhat are some ways that humans alter the hydrologic cycle on a local scale?1.Disruption of water flow (e.g., dams)2.Usage for agriculture, lawns, recreation3.Industrial use for clothing > also pollutes water source4.Changing water patterns> intentionally or due to climate change5.Sewage and wastewater runoff6.Deforestation> impacts evapotranspiration, impacts groundwater uptake 7.Bottled water8.Land use change9.Altering biodiversity10.Water use to put out fires11.Increasing glacial runoff

THE PHYSICAL WORLDBIOL 1118, Ch. 3Dr. Kyra JanotFall Term 2023Layers of the AtmosphereTheatmosphere is a layer of gases that is held close to the surface of the Earth by gravityoDensity of gases is ____higher________________________closer to surface, and _______declines_____________________rapidly the further out it extendsEarth’s atmosphere has four layers:1.The troposphereClosest to Earth’s surface, contains ______85-90%_________________of the atmosphere’s massHeight between 8-20 km, higher at __________lower latitudes_______________and in the summerTemperature generally colder at ____________higher________________altitudesWind is common2.The stratosphereAbove the troposphere, height up to 50 km but varies with season and latitudeMinimal _________temperature___________________variation with latitude, minimal windContains ozone (O3)3.The mesophereAbove the stratosphere, height ~75 kmThe first layer that incoming ______meteors______________________will encounter that is dense enough to slow them down4.The thermosphereAbove the mesosphere, height ~450 km or moreOutermost layer to still be chemically and thermally influenced by EarthComposition of the AtmosphereThe atmosphere is made up of ~78% N2, ___21%______O2, 0.9% Ar, and ___0.04%_____CO2(by mass)oAlso includes various trace gases, fine particulates, and water vapourThe atmosphere contains more water in warmer temperatures, measured as humidityowater typically ____________condenses________________into a liquid form when temperatures are coolWind

THE PHYSICAL WORLDBIOL 1118, Ch. 3Dr. Kyra JanotFall Term 2023Wind is the movement of atmospheric mass, and is largely caused by convectionUse the space below to either draw out or explain how convection currents cause wind:SConvection currents causes wind by heating the earth’s surface which warms the air above it this then causes the air to rise which the gives you an area of low pressure where then cooler air will rush in to fill the gap, creating wind The direction of wind is also impacted by the rotation of the Earth, which results in the Coriolis EffectoAir at the ________equator____________________spins faster around Earth’s axis than air that is closeto the ___________poles_________________oIf air is pushed from equator to poles, it maintains it’s momentum and moves faster relative to the air around it, deflecting __________clockwise__________________(southern hemisphere) or _________counterclockwise___________________(northern hemisphere)Wind is also impacted by local topography, i.e., wind barriers that _________deflect___________________and valleys that ________channel____________________wind flowsConvection, the Coriolis Effect, and topography will also impact the movement of water in similar waysVideo on the Coriolis Effect:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1Y1Qi821n-s

THE PHYSICAL WORLDBIOL 1118, Ch. 3Dr. Kyra JanotFall Term 2023Climate and WeatherClimate Vs. WeatherClimaterefers to the average overall trends in atmospheric conditions (temperature, precipitation, humidity, wind speed/direction, solar radiation, visibility, fog, cloud cover)oCalculated as an __________average__________________or _________range___________________over some period of timeWeather refers to daily or short-term conditionsohas higher variability in both ___________time_________________and __________space__________________Both climate and weather will be influenced by many (interconnected) factors that impact reflection and absorption of __________solar radiation__________________, as this in turn impacts temperature gradients andsubsequence movement of ____________air and water________________Factors that Impact Climate1.The sun:oMost of the warming of Earth’s surface comesfrom solar energy2.The atmosphere:oParticulates and ______watervapour______________________in theatmosphere reflect certain wavelengths of solarradiation back towards spaceoOther wavelengths are absorbed by Earth’ssurface, which in turn emits ______infraredradiation______________________oGases such as CO2 and CH4reflect this radiationback towards Earth, causing the “GreenhouseEffect”3.Day length:oSolar radiation is higher during the day than atnight, and there is seasonal and latitudinalvariation in day length___________Tropical________________regions - equal day and night lengths, minimal seasonal variation____________Polas________________regions - huge seasonal fluctuations in day length, periods of continuous day in the summer and continuous night in the winter_____________Temperate_______________regions - moderate seasonal fluctuations, shorter days in winter than in summer

THE PHYSICAL WORLDBIOL 1118, Ch. 3Dr. Kyra JanotFall Term 20234.Latitude:oImpacts fluctuations in day length as well as angle of incoming solar radiationoSolar radiation hits _________tropical___________________latitudes at a roughly perpendicular angle, and hits ________polar____________________latitudes at more oblique angleoPerpendicular angles distribute energy over a _____________smaller area_______________, so averagetemperature within that area is higher5.Seasons:oAngle of incoming radiation varies throughout the year for most areas of the globe, due to the tilt of Earth’s axisoTimes of year where angle is more perpendicular correspond to warmer conditionsMar 21 – Sep 22 in ____________northern________________hemisphereSep 22 – Mar 21 in ___________southern_________________hemisphereoVideo showing Earth’s rotation around the sun: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WgHmqv_-UbQ&t=2s6.Aspect:oThe aspect of a slope refers to the direction it faces, which impacts how much sunlight it receiveso________South-facing____________________slopes receive more sunlight in the northern hemisphere, ________north-facing____________________slopes receive more sunlight in the southern hemisphere7.Soil and vegetation:oCertain substrates and vegetation types reflect or absorb solar radiation more than othersoGenerally, _________darker___________________surfaces absorb more solar radiation than ____________lighter________________ones8.Evapotranspiration:oWhen water evaporates from a moist surface or is transpired from foliage, it carries heat with it, resulting in a cooling effect9.Snow and ice:oBoth snow and ice reflect solar radiation, keeping the underlying surface cooleroWhen snow or ice melts, solar radiation is absorbed at a higher than it is reflected, speeding up warmingOf the various factors that influence climate, which ones do you think are impacted by human activity? How?1.Changing vegetation (e.g., agriculture)2.Cattle framing> increases CH4> increases GHG> energy is reflected back to surface3.Pavement (dark, absorbs energy)4.Impacting phytoplankton>photosynthesis> CO2 CGHC5.Climate warming> decreasing snow/ice> decreasing reflectivity6.Decreasing permafrost, releases methane7.Deforestation, hunting og long-lived species decreases of carbon

THE PHYSICAL WORLDBIOL 1118, Ch. 3Dr. Kyra JanotFall Term 2023Learning Outcomes1.Broadly describe how the universe and matter are theorised to have formed They are theorized to have formed through the Big Bang, expanding from an incredibly dense and hot state 2.Distinguish between terrestrial and gas giant planets, and explain why the gas giants in our solar system are located further away from the sun Terrestrial plant like earth are rocky and have solid surfaces while gas giants like Jupiter are primarily composed of gas and lack solid surfaces They are located further away from the sun in our solar system because gas giants are formed in regions with lower temperatures allowing the gas to condense into big planets 3.Distinguish between the three major layers of Earth with respect to location and general composition/density, and define the term “lithosphere”Crust: The outermost layer, composed of solid rock. It is relatively thin compared to the other layers and includes the Earth's continents and ocean floors.Mantle: Located beneath the crust, the mantle is semi-solid and consists of silicate minerals. It is much thicker and hotter thanthe crust.Core: The innermost layer, composed mainly of iron and nickel. It is divided into a liquid outer core and a solid inner core. The outer core is responsible for generating the Earth's magnetic field.The upper mantle and the crust are referred to as the lithosphere 4.Distinguish between minerals and rocksa)Describe three categories of rocksIgneous rock, Sedimentary Rock, Metamorphic rock b)Distinguish between basaltic and granitic rocks with respect to appearance, formation, and general location in Earth’s crustBasaltic rocks are typically dark-colored, fine-grained, and rich in iron and magnesium. They often form from rapid cooling of lava and are commonly found in oceanic crust. Granitic rocks are lighter in color, coarse-grained, and richin silicon and aluminum. They form from the slow cooling of magma and are common in continental crust5.Recall the four major time intervals of the Geologic Time Scale, and explain what the boundaries of these time intervals are based onEons, Eras, Periods, Epochs there based on major evolutionary events like mass extinctionsMass extinctions are estimated based on sudden drops in diversity within the fossil record 6.Explain how meteorites have likely impacted the evolutionary history of Earth, and recall some of the evidence that supports the Impact Hypothesis as an explanation for the end-Cretaceous extinctionMax Extinction, Environmental changes, and creation of habitat

THE PHYSICAL WORLDBIOL 1118, Ch. 3Dr. Kyra JanotFall Term 20237.Explain how tectonic plates are created and destroyed, and relate this to the phenomena of sea-floor spreading, volcanoes, earthquakes, and tsunamisCreation: Plates are created at mid-ocean ridges through a process called sea-floor spreading. Here, magma rises from the mantle, solidifies at the oceanic crust, and pushes older crust away, creating new oceanic lithosphere.Destruction: Plates are destroyed at subduction zones where one tectonic plate descends beneath another. The subducted plate melts, contributing to volcanic activity and recycling material into the mantle.Sea-floor spreading is associated with the formation of new oceanic crust, while volcanoes and earthquakes often occur along plate boundaries, where plates interact. Tsunamis can also result from undersea earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.8.Discuss some factors that could impact the severity of consequences related to volcano eruptions, earthquakes, and tsunamis Volcano eruption: the type of volcanosEarthquakes: the magnitudeTsunamis: Coastal topography Warning systems for all 9.Describe how glaciers formGlaciers form from accumulated snow that compacts and recrystallizes into dense ice in regions where snowfall exceeds melting.a)Explain why glacier formation impacts sea levelsGlacier formation lowers sea levels as they store freshwater. Melting glaciers contribute to rising sea levels when they release stored water into the ocean.b)Explain how glaciers can shape landscapes, and give at least two examplesGlaciers shape landscapes through erosion and deposition. Examples include U-shaped valleys and moraines10.Distinguish between weathering and erosion, and describe some ways in which humans might impact rates of weathering and erosionWeathering is the process of breaking down rocks and minerals into smaller particles through chemical, physical, or biological means. It doesn't involve the movement of these particles.Erosion is the transportation of weathered rock and sediment by agents like wind, water, or ice, often leading to their deposition in new locations.Climate, agriculture, mining, deforestation 11.Explain how weathered and eroded materials are recycled back into rock formations via the rock cycleWeathered materials become sediment, which can compact and cement to form sedimentary rocks. Over time, heat and pressure can transform these rocks into metamorphic rocks. Some rocks may melt into magma, which solidifies to create igneous rocks. Uplift and erosion expose these rocks at the surface, closing the rock cycle.12.Define the terms “hydrosphere” and “atmosphere”, and describe the components of each

THE PHYSICAL WORLDBIOL 1118, Ch. 3Dr. Kyra JanotFall Term 2023Hydrosphere is all the water on Earth: Ocean, Surface water, Groundwater, Atmospheric water. Atmosphere is the air surrounding our planet, made up of gases like nitrogen and oxygen.: Troposphere, Stratosphere, Mesosphere, Thermosphere13.Describe the hydrologic cycle, and give some examples of ways humans interact with and alter this cycleThe hydrologic cycle is the continuous movement of water. Human interactions include water extraction, deforestation, urbanization, dam construction, agricultural irrigation, and climate change.14.Explain how wind and water are impacted by:a)convectionb)the Coriolis Effectc)local topographya) Convection causes rising warm air and wind.b) The Coriolis Effect deflects wind and ocean currents due to Earth's rotation.c) Local topography shapes wind and water patterns.15.Distinguish between climate and weather, and describe nine factors that impact climate and weatherClimate is long-term, weather is short-term. Factors: The Sun: Provides heat and energy, influencing weather and climate.Atmosphere: Composition and structure impact temperature and weather patterns.Daylength: Affects daily temperatures, with longer days generally warmer.Latitude: Determines solar intensity, influencing temperature variations.Seasons: Caused by axial tilt, leading to temperature and weather changes.Aspect: Surface direction affects sunlight exposure and local climate.Soil and Vegetation: Impact moisture retention, temperature regulation, and local climate.Evapotranspiration: Evaporation and plant transpiration affect humidity, clouds, and weather.Snow and Ice: Reflect sunlight, contribute to cooler temperatures, and influence regional climates