Origins of War: Human Conflict, Society, and Evidence

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Algonquin College**We aren't endorsed by this school

Course

CST 8279

Subject

History

Date

Dec 12, 2024

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Uploaded by SuperHumanMongoosePerson750

ECH 3320 - Semester 1- 2017 – Paul Robinson- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Week One - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Waging War: The origins of War and the State We think of war as between states but it traditionally, at the times of the origins of man and centuries after, violence existed between individuals and and social groupsoFought over territory, resources when they were scarce, and femalesCompetition and conflict drove technological innovationsTwo Branches of ThoughtoInventorsROUSSEAU: Primitive humans in the state of nature were peaceful and lived in an environment of abundanceHuman conflict is recent because of the change in human social organizationoDeep RootersHOBBES: Life in the state of nature was short, nasty and brutish KEELEY: war before civilizations had extreme male fatality ratesLots believe in this long violent intergroup history as the most accurateThis Chapter gives 3 types of evidence for a long history of conflictoChimpanzee waroArcheological evidence of human violence oBiological selection and the role of conflictCHIMPSGoodall had a community of chimps that she hand fed bananas and they all lived peacefully togetherWhen she stopped feeding them and the pack was too large for their natural resources they began to hunt each other in very violent waysChimps have strategic warfare strategies when attacking each otheroTerritory bordersoPatrolsoLeadersFight for resources; territory, food, femalesThese issues show up in human conflict as well oConflict is not endemic but episodicoCasualty rates can be very highoConflict is in response to ecological pressure and perceptions of advantageOnly pick a fight when you believe your group has the overall advantageThis collection of behavior that we see among chimps can only be called waroIt's organized, lethal group activity diminishing one group for the benefit of anotherBonobos are extremely similar to chimps biologically yet their matriarchal society is markedly less violentoRaises Questions:Are male dominated societies more violent?What role does biology play in violence ?Etc.ARCHEOLOGYEvidence for human warfare is found all through time in various formsTimeline of war in reverse order:‘Conventional’ warfare among states happen in;o3500 BCE in Uruk/Middle Easto3100 BCE Egypto1800 BCE Northern China*Prehistoric eras from oldest to most recent are (for my own knowledge)oStone Age:

Palaeolithic‘Old stone age’“All variations of “homo” existed”Meolithic ‘Middle stone age’Ended with the introduction of agricultureNeoithic‘New stone age”“Only homo sapiens remained”Time of social developmentFarming was limited but growing, early villages and settlements were developedEnded with metal toolsChalcolithicPretty similar to neooBronze Age:The invention of writing and advanced metalworkingoIron Age:Neolithic ViolenceoClear evidence for pre-state warfareoCases:Jericho (est. 9000 BCE)Walled cityoLikely for fortification (though some say for flooding)CatalhoyokInscriptions/art of people shooting arrows at each otheroMost common neolithic warfare was between newly established sedentary people and wandering foragers, not between competing sedentary townsSedentary people meants greater agriculture and resources, making them a common target for raidersEpipaleolithic/MesolithicoEvidence of Violence is seen in mangled skeletons in mass gravesGraves:Talheim 5000 BCE: Grave near Heilbronn GermanyoAbout 35 victims, they were likely farmersAnother mass grave in a Cave in BavariaJebel SahabaoAnother Grace dating from 1200-10 000Together they suggest a consistency of violent conflict and that it existed at the same time as sedentary lifeMiddle and Upper PaleolithicoNeandertals and Homo Sapiens show evidence for cannibalismoThis evidence is so weak it’s not even worth writing about, there’s a picture of a skull that was apparently used as a drinking cup because someone thought that was a funny idea… we better not be tested on this crap… oHuman being diversified their diets to add smaller game, than larger gameoThis lead to sedentary foragers and hunter gatherer societiesoWar may have played a role in this transition but it's highly speculative

oSocial groups kept developing oHuman warfare has likely existed at alltimes and allplaces, just not allthe timeThe Rise of the StateThe process of socially stratified societies expanding and competing or territory created even more complex societiesStates had significantly greater ability to mobilize military labouroCould support professional warriorsReading has details of the formation of egypt Non state peoples continued to war with each other and states - competition increased CONCLUSION (Praise the Lord)Chapters aim is to establish continuity of prehistoric human conflict and modern warfareWar was and is theuse of potentially lethal force by cooperating groups in order to solve some perceived problem or achieve some desired endThe state emerged to raise capacity but also depended heavily on preserving capacity oIt was still brittle and could be conquered relatively easilyAs a society becomes more complex, access to power within it narrowedBig men did not wield power as individuals but instead though their influence over LodsKings were kings because they manipulated fore and belief yet they had little physical influence on war.- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Week Two - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Waging War, Carts, Chariots, Catastrophe, and Cavalry The chariot reinforces social differentiationThe invention occurred in the context of the steppe-tribe interaction with emerging states of mesopotamiao*A steppeis a dry, grassy plain. Steppesoccur in temperate climates, which lie between the tropics and polar regions. Temperate regionshave distinct seasonal temperature changes, withcold winters and warm summers.o*Mesopotamia was a historic region situated within the Tigris–Euphrates river system, in modern days roughly corresponding to most of Iraq plus Kuwait, the eastern parts of Syria, Southeastern TurkeyThey were created in many stages and a certain level of civilization and resources were requiredTo built a chariot you needoThe technology (plans)oThe materialsWoodsMetalsDomesticated horsesoThe labourInventing the ChariotHorseso1st step was developing society past just agriculture to livestockoSettlements in the step took on cattle and eventually horsesHorses could feed themselves by digging up grass and roots in the winter with hooveso3700-3500 BCE steppe dwellers developed the bridle and could ride horsesoHorses were then being ridden in Russia, Kazakhstan, and UkraineThe ability to ride lead to the ability to manage/control larger herds

oStill did not fight on horseback at this point, they were just used as transportation to and from battlesCartsoCarts drawn by donkeys show up first in mesopotamia in 2500 BCEThey were super bouncySlow4 wheels, no pivot, no missile weaponsExpensive to built so few could afford themTheir military effectiveness was found primarily in the prestige the portrayes and that they were perceived as potentially carrying divine powero3400 BCE Wheel Carts show up in EuropeChariotso2100 they came from the Near East in the form of chariots with two spoked wheels pulled by bitted horses(Came to Near East 200 years after this model appeared elsewhere) *According to the National Geographic Society, the terms Near East and Middle East denote the same territories and are "generally accepted as comprising the countries of the Arabian Peninsula, Cyprus, Egypt, Iraq, Iran,Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Palestinian territories, Syria, and Turkey".oLike the spread of wagons, the spread of chariots was not just by conquest, the technology spread by other meansoAfter 1850 BCE images from Syria and Anatolia how spoked chariots with bows shooting arrowsBowsoThe Sintashta riders didn’t actually use bows, they used javelins but bows grew steadily in popularity *The Sintashta culture, also known as the Sintashta-Petrovka culture or Sintashta-Arkaim culture, is a Bronze Age archaeological culture of the northern Eurasian steppe on the borders of Eastern Europe*they were potentially the developers of the chariots and the first horse ridersoFour stages of Bows“Self bows” Made from a single shaft of wood, can’t shoot very far at all“Longbows”Better power than self bows but very awkward in chariots because they’re like full body sides“Recurve Bow”Used geometry to increase power“Composite Bow”Used multiple materials, wood, horn, etcMuch more laboursome and expensive and didn’t handle moisture well, but significantly more powerfulThe Chariot and Composite bow combo came in the middle bronze age (1900-1600)oMitanni/Hurrians and Hittites were the key players*Hurrians were an assortment of peoples from smaller states that were eventually riles bythe mitanni, they were great chariot fightersChariots and even bows contributed very little to sieges in actualityThey were adopted for cultural, not tactical reasons, they were very eliteWhen powerful states re-emerged late bronze age (1500) so did larger chariot forces in the Near Eastern statesChariot warfareStrategy:oChariots would drive within bow shot, shoot, then reposition and shoot againoIf the infantry had bows it was bad for chariots, they couldn't control their horses

oThe best counter attack on chariots was other chariotsoIf chariots fought each other they would use strategies like cavalriesoChariots were most effective with good timing and in good combination with infantryHittite chariots were like egyptian ones but they carried three men not twooThey later switched to the two man-one bow modelCarts and Chariots held very different functionsParties started increasing the number of chariots they had/would useEgypt had a ton of them and used them to expand into palestine and syriaThe Battle of Megiddo (1457)oSyria and Palestine vs EgyptoPrince Megiddo has two very fancy chariotsThe princes had a ton of chariotsThe influential men has a ton of chariotsThen even simple fighters were in chariotso...There were a lot of chariotso*The Battle of Megiddo(15th century BC) was fought between Egyptianforces under the command of Pharaoh ThutmoseIIIand a large rebellious coalition of Canaanitevassal states led by the king of Kadesh.[2]It is the first battle that was recorded in detail and for posterity. Pharaoh Thutmose III's military scribe inscribed it in hieroglyphsat Thutmose's temple at Karnak, Thebes(now Luxor). Not only is this the first extant, detailed battle description, but it is the first written reference to the religiously important Megiddo: Megiddo is also known as ArmageddonoThe Egyptian troops entered the fortress at Megiddo to plunder. They took almost a thousand chariots, including the prince's, more than 2000 horses, thousands of other animals, millions of bushels of grain, an impressive pile of armor, and thousands of captives.The Battle of Kadesh (1274 BC)oThe chariot ration was said to be 5-1 infantryoThis shows the extreme capacity of stateso*Battle of Kadesh, (1275 bc), major battle between the Egyptians under Ramses IIand the Hittite sunder Muwatallis, in Syria, southwest of Ḥimṣ, on the Orontes River. In one of the world’s largest chariot battles, fought beside the Orontes River, Pharaoh Ramses II sought to wrest Syria from the Hittites and recapture the Hittite-held city of Kadesh. There was a day ofcarnage as some 5,000 chariots charged into the fray, but no outright victor. The battle led to the world’s first recorded peace treaty.Chariots were expensiveoLabour costs were high but attainableoHorses however were harder to come byThey were very expensive for sedentary agricultural societiesEgypt bread it’s own horses whereas China and India depended on tradeoMaterials to make chariots were expensive and often had to be imported by different statesChariots were invented by tribal nomadic people, but they most benefited states and regions that had the capacity to acquire large numbers of themChariots in ChinaCHina is considered to have been very peaceful for a long time when it was under confucian ideologyoThis depends on how you interpret the Great Wall (military fortification or another purpose?)The Shang dynasty came up as rebels in 1600oShang established a hierarchy of power and orderShang fought like his Xia predecessors,oLess swords, more arrows, close combat with spears, daggers, axes, and leather armour with smallshieldsShang enemies were the QiangoQiang raided their land like the later steppe didChariots came to Shang from the steppe in approximately 1200 BCE in their full form

oTwo wheels, spokes, 2 riders with a bowShang and Zhou kept them in this form for the most partThey were at first more likely used as command vehicles surrounded by infantry than the Near East strategiesoMost Chang chariots were reserved for members of the ruling class, high officials, and important peopleUnder Shou there were a lot more chariotsoBattle Of Mu-Yeh:King Wu of Shoyu used 300 chariots to defeat the SHang and later has 1000 chariots available to himHis chariots were greater in number than Shang but less ornateZhou started the pattern of getting horses from the northern nomadic peopleFrom 700-400 BCE Chariots were crucial to the chinese armyChariots in India and EuropeChariots still held a symbol of prestigeIndiaoI didn’t take many notes on this sectionoThe Aryan God Indra was a chariot rideroIndia had carts like the Sintashta Two wheels4-8 spokesPulled by 2 horsesCarry two men with one bowoChariots were one of the key elements even after Alexander the Great in 326 BCEEuropeoChariots were important to the Mycenaean state system of bronze age greeceoThey first appear in greek art in 1600 BCEoIt is likely that Mycenaeans adopted them to emulate the power they held in the Near EastoMycenaeans valued chariots as weapons of war and prestigeoRecords at the palace of Pylos and Knossos catalog 1000 pairs of wheels and 420 chariot cartsoSome say greek chariots use maces as weapons like the contemporary Hittites but the likely used bows and arrows like the Near EastoThe rough terrain in Greece makes chariots less effective and big charges of chariots almost impossibleThe Decline of Chariots In the mediterranean in about 1200 BCE there was a decline in the number of chariotsThe Dark AgeoBetween 1225-1175 BCE there was some mysterious great catastrophe that destroyed KingdomsoVery few records of this time periodoThe states that survived the dark ages came out favoring infantries and cavalry's oThe states that built chariots were destroyed/weakened and the remaining states didn’t have the resources to build them to the same capacityoThe Dark Age/catastrophe may have also undermined the prestige that chariots once heldCavalry also became popularoPreviously they horses being bred were very small and it was said that riding them was undignified but over time larger horses were being bred and could be ridden without a loss of dignityConclusionThe story Chariot signifies the remarkable ‘connected-ness’ of the ancient worldTecha and ideas moved all around eurasiaThey were initially adopted so states could look powerfulThey were fast, new, exotic, and costlyThe reinforced systems of privilege

Their popularity did not necessarily spread by conquestAnd they were popular to states that valued elite leadership- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Week Three - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Waging War: Men in Lines with Spears (Ch3)Intro:The Spear is the oldest attestable crafted weapon oUntipped wood spears were around 400,000 years agooThen a separate point was added, first stone, than bronze or ironSome were for throwing, others to be thrustedThe real innovation was how men organized to use themoThere are a lot of ways to do thisMasses of Men in the Background: Bronze AgeBackgroundoIn the early 19th century the Zulus adopted a thrusting spear and close combat tactical style*The Zulu are the single largest ethnic groupin South Africa and numbered about nine million in the late 20th century.o16th Century Araucanian Indians used pike and shot formationsoOther non state speer users tended to throw them as individual warriors oThe Iron Age “Barbarian” chiefdoms in North West Europe used spear and shield carrying infantry but lacked cooperation of contemporary statesEmergence of Linear uniform formation:oFirst appears in states at Sumer*Sumerwas the first urban civilizationin the historical region of southern MesopotamiaoTwo famous images of spear carrying infantry have been foundThe Stele of VulturesContains Helmeted men lined up with rectangular overlapping shiels, carrying spears with two hands, in rows 6 people deepThe Standard of UrSame region and period, in this one men don’t have shields and formation is less clearDevelopment of linear formationsoLevant and Anatolia They were Middle Bronze Age kingdoms Had infantrymen with speersIt’s unclear how they were organizedoEgyptBefore the Chariot was introduced there is evidence for spearmen in formationA wooden model from 2000 BCE depicts formation of forty spear and shield carrying egyptian infantry with 40 Nubian archersThey’re shown marching rather than fightingLiterary sources suggest middle kingdom armies start battle with an exchange of arrows followed by an advance of ax or speeren into hand to hand combatNone of them wore armour of any kind Egyptians clearly had spear carrying infantry from an early date, But during New Kingdom (1500-1077) their iconography focuses on chariots and foot archersoChina:Infantry in Shang and Zhou China carried a roughly rectangular single hand shield, a dagger axe, and sometimes short spearoAll of these Bronze Age societies fought for control of territory and capture of cities.

Controlling territory and labour meant increasing wealth and poweroTaking towns required masses of men, generally on foot. Some historians think that in the bronze age infantry’s just fought in a sort of uniformed skirmishThere’s a strong contrast to the new state-based infantry of the iron age and the disorganized bronze ageoEventually men would fight in close order, use thrusting spears, andwear more personal armour (unproven Hypothesis)In the end of the Bronze age the masses of men in the background began moving to the front of the stateAssyria Reborn: Bronze age Assyria was a great power, and the “catastrophe” before the Iron age diminished its powerbut didn’t destroy its KingdomoIt emerged pretty intact and is now referred to as the Neo-Assyrian EmpireoThe Neo-Assyrian Empire expanded to a substantial territoryoThe expansion was interrupted from 810- 746 and the empire eventually destroyed in 627(The Assyrian homeland was centered in Nineveh and Assur)Assyrian Kings were very militaristicThe Kings of Assyria took a lot of pride in their role as city destroyers Artistic portrayals: oAssyrian art show different types of infantryoVarying arms and armouroWithin this Variety spearmen played a central roleoThe portrayals don't tell much about how the infantry performed in battleoEvidence of the significance of men in line with spears in the assyrian army comes primarily from propaganda oMost Assyrian military art focuses on siegesoBattle of Ulai RiverImages of it show spearmen and archers working side by sideAssyrian military Strategy:oThe Neo Assyrian army retained chariotry as a key part of the army Though it evolved to heavier version of the chariot carrying 4 menoAssyrians were likely the first to develop true mounted cavalryResults from fighting on terrain that was too rough for chariotsCavalry into a potent force of mounted archers which eventually diminished the role of chariotsChariots were still a big deal for a long time though, the king was often depicted in oneoAssyrian army had a surprising level of complexity, sophistication, and balance of arms/combined armsThey combined Chariots, cavalry, archers, singers, spearmen, and assorted other ethnic troop typesThey were sustained by a massive centralized logistical systemThey campaigned in all seasons of the year and crossed all kinds of terrain (includingmassive rivers) They had as many as 8 infantrymen for every cavalrymen (The delivery of infantry to a siege was a key function of the field army as a whole)oAssyrian horsemenWore little armor and carried 6/7 foot iron bladed thrusting spearsProtected selves with a round shield

Seen as auxiliary menoSpearmen were considered regular infantryOvertime they acquired more armor made of bronze scales and used round leather shieldsCarried the same 6/7 foot long iron tipped thrusting spearOften seen paired with an archeroInfantry forceTypically lined up in linear formation with spears to cover a line of archers that was directly behind them firing arrows over their headsMeanwhile Assyrian chariotry and cavalry opened the fight with archers and attempts to flank the enemy formationEventually infantry would close in for some hand to hand combatWhen enemy formation broke, the lighter spearmen lead pursuit sThe infantry fighters were part of a standing professional forceThe Assyrians had 5 campaigns into Egypt over 11 yearsBecause of constant campaigning like this many states started employing professional armiesoThey had to to deal with itoEsarhaddon (680-669 BCE) (the third king of the Sargonid Dynasty of the Neo-Assyrian Empire ) recorded how he took prisoners from conquered cities and selected soldiers skilled in battle and added them to his guardoThe Assyrian army was more flexible than its opponents because of their combined troop types oThey were also considered masters of psychological warfareThey described their victories in ways that would incite fear in violent propaganda Communal solidarity and the Greek Hoplite PhalanxHopliteoHoplites are Greek infantrymen named after the assemblage of weapons and armour that they carried (hoopa)oClassic Hoplites wore a heavy bronze helmet ( 4 or 5 pounds ) and breastplates Overtime the helmets got more open faced to get lighter and the Breastplates got lighter tooThey started off as solid bronze, covering chest and backThey eventually transitioned to stiff linen/leather combinationsoThey also wore Bronze greaves to protect the shinsBecame less common overtime oShields were wood, sometimes covered in thin Bronze and held on the left armoHoplite’s key offensive weapon was an 8 foot thrusting spear with a bronze tip on one end and a butt spike on the otherThe Butt spike was back up if the spear broke and could also be used to stab downward at enemyThe hoplite Spear was primarily carried overhandoHoplite used sword as last resortPhalanxoA Phalanx was a formation in which men foughtoIts was a long rectangle of closely packed files of menoGenerally packed 8 deep with all men all armed with shield and spearPhalanx BattleoIt had a highly ritualistic quality that both sides understoodoThere were predictable phases of preparationoThe Battle was preceded by religious sacrifices

oThey marched in lines of 8 with a veteran file leader and file closeroThe files closed up tightly side by sideYou were encouraged to do so because you were protected by your neighbours shieldBecause of this, the whole line would tend to drift to the right and they would miss the enemyoThe advance was slow,armor was too heavy and it was too hot for anything elseoIts unclear what happened at the point of contactPossible that they increased speeds and charged at each other hoping to plow over theenemyPossible that the slowed and reset their lines and squished in last minute stabbing overhand at enemy defenseThe back rows would be pressing the front men forward this was called Othismos (the push)oThe battle itself was a little chaotic, bloody, and short oYou wouldn't pursue the defeated Victor stripped dead enemy of equipment, erected a trophy, then made a truce so the enemy could collect their deadBecause they didn’t chase them there were relatively few casualties Origins of the PhalanxoExact origins lie in poorly recorded Greece in the archaic periodoEvolved into mature form from 700-500 BCEoThe Mycenaeans of Bronze Age Greece built their imagery around the Chariot but they still had men with spearsoDuring the undocumented years post-catastrophe the greeks stopped using the chariot in significant numbers and used more bows, javelins, and long thrusting spearsoThey wore more armor than in contemporary iron age Near East armies, and were more interested in self preservationoIt's clear that individual elements and hoplite panoply were adopted well before the tightly formed phalanx had been created (page 104, I’m a little fuzzy on these details)oSome think that egalitarian greeks inspired the egalitarian phalanx (they did develop in parallel)oThe Iliad talked about how ‘ the prowess of the individual warrior yielded the efficiency of the phalanx’oPhalanx origins and chronology are unclear but its development was clearly a processoThe phalanx was not the sum of greek warfare but it made the greeks famousoIts success was the sheer weight of the formation The most famous of all is the flank or rear attackThe liner formation is weaker on its narrow end and cannot turn to meet enemy and properly shield themselves Greeks were aware of this and placed veteran soldiers at the rear for itoThe Effectiveness of the Phalanx did come in part from equipment and that could be copied The Macedonian Sarissa PhalanxIt came from coping and tinkering with greek phalanxThe ruler Philip II expanded the MAcedonian military forces and kept them loyalThe field the army was comprised of cavalry and peasant militiaBy this time the ‘combo fighting’ was established as effective Phil would take rude peasants and give them equipment and money so they’d love him and fight for him He expanded the state through conquest Also strengthened relationships with the men by calling them his foot champions Phil and the Phalanx

oInstead of an 8 ft thrust spear they had “Sarissas” 16 ft - 8 ft long pike held with two hands with a counter balance on the buttoHands were busy so they used little strap on shields hanging around the shoulder and neckoHe deepened the Phalanx formation to 10-16 men oAt this depth with first 4-5 ranks had to dance with pikes lowered leaving opponents to cope with veritable thicket points projecting at varying distancesPhil instituted training for his peasant troops Its success in conquering Greece allowed for some expansion but the force that alexander took into persia probably numbered only some forty thousand menHe rapidly overran and destroyed the persian empire extending the macedonians reach over the courseof 11 years of continuous campaigning from greece to egypt through Persia and into India.When Alexander dies the new macedonian empire quickly dissolved into squabbling components ruled by macedonian dynasts the successorsThe macedonian kingdoms would famously go down in defeat before the romansStrategy: Honour, Interest and Fear (Ch2)Thucydideshe was a general involved in the wars that greece was waginghe believed that the Greek 30 years of conflict was more significant than any other event in historyhe shared sun tzu's concern with using force to achieve political goalshe wrote about the conflict and presents his work at a historical accountBackgroundhe came from the city state athensathens was very powerful, it's almost equally powerful opponent was spartaThucydides work, the history of the peloponnesian war, describes athens attempt to manage the conflict with sparta and win itUltimately however athens lost both the war and its democratic way of lifeonot because sparta had superior forces, but because athens wasted potential advantagesReading Thucydidesthere are some apparent contradictions in his workomostly minor thingssome wonder if he’s right/accurate or if we can even understand him correctlyThucydides in his first history book explains why he thinks the peloponnesian war is the greatest in history, even greater than troyoathens and sparta controlled more people and territory, and economic and administrative technologies to expand over unlimited regions ( unless prevented by others state )it's possible thucydides took a “Hippocratic” approach to his writing because he was interested in patterns and not just the individualsGreek thinkers like plato present ideas in writing dialogues where different characters have different opinions othucydides seems to have reported historical speeches for the same purposeAthenians may have behaved like Realist theorists claim people behave, but the fact that they eventually lost the war suggests that such realism is an insufficient guide to long term strategy Three Strategic Debates, three episodes1. Spartans decide to go to war with athens2. Athenian statesman Pericles developed strategy for his people to use in response 3. 7 years later after A&S signed a truce, a different war with sicily gave athens the chance to conquer all sicily1:

the reality of the war always proves more complex than even the wisest states anticipated Simple Principlesospartan decision to fight athens was the point where the war beganothe war grew out of conflicts among small statesCorcyra appealed to athens for protection from CorinthCorinthians were allied to sparta and tried to provoke sparta to declare war on athensThey accused athens of violating various treaties and inciting revoltsaccused spartan leaders of being naive about international politicsurged them to take arms to right a wrongThe corinthian ambassador claimed sparta had allowed athens to grow strong because of their conservative attitudesoThe athenians often gambled on poor odds and suffered because of it but were also quick to recover from setbacksoAthenians offered spartans advice toocorinthians emphasized state differencesathenians emphasized similarities Athenians say the strong rule and the weak submitothey respond to the pressure of fear, honour, and interestAthenians claimed spartans didn’t need to view them as threateningoinstead they should settle matters with negotiationSparta had two kingsoArchidamus wanted countrymen to prepare for war just in case it became unavoidableothe assembly however voted to declare war without further negotiationsThucydides notes that spartans declared war because they were afraid of the growth of athenian power2. Complex Realitiesif Kagan (theorist?) was right about how the athenians strategy was to scare away corinth, they failed.Corinthians didn’t back down after their show of forceospartans gave athens little credit for self restraintSparta and allies attack athens home territory of Attica forcing them to defend it in an all out warAthens General Pericles proposed a creative strategyoathenians had to demonstrate they were willing to fight for independence against all challenges oPericles said don’t do a conventional field army battle, they’d get wrecked, but instead, use athens huge walls and great siege technology. the walls even extended to protect their roadif they wanted to stay inside sparta couldn’t force them outfor this reason Pericles said they were stronger than spartaSParta's government was poorly organized for adapting to unfamiliar challenges Pericles thought that once sparta realized that waging war against athens was costly and futile they would withdrawInstead the Spartans tried to turn athenians against each otheromost of the athenians felt loyal to their ancestral villages so Archidamus led their army through athenian territory The point was to get them to come out and defend it, or just create division amongst themselvesthey athenians were so mad and wanted to leave to defend their land (would have been suicide). the only reason they didn’t is because Pericles refused to hold a meeting where they would vote on itUnfortunately, then a plague broke out in the city wallsoathens descended into anarchyoafter two years they regained order and voted to offer sparta surrenderPericles was super against it, he addressed everyone, and convinced them to continue to war

oshortly after he diedThucydides says athens was at its greatest when Pericles was in office ohe was a man who could lead people instead of being lead by themSparta persisted and athens new they had to take some offenceothey tried naval attacks but they weren’t enough, they needed a large counter attackA&S fought for more than 8 years, athens eventually won by ignoring Pericles’s advice of avoiding fresh conquestAnd in 425 athenians seized Pylos (a part of spartan territory) and built a fortress there oalso took Cypher and made a base thereas they were winning they took lots of spartan soldiers prisonerboth sides were weak Both sides now wanted peace3.SicilyAthenians forced spartans to make peace by drawing on their traditional boldness and willingness to innovatethis spirit of initiative is vital to the art of strategyBoldness served athens well but they eventually took it too farwhen the opportunity to take all of sicily arose they took itosicily was rich Thucydides states that most athenians failed to understand how challenging a war to conquer sicily would beGeneral Nicias wanted athens to reconsider the warOlympic champion Alcibiades really wanted the waroHe made athens think it would be easyoWanted them to expand their empire as aggressively as they couldo“If we cease to rule others we are in danger of being rues ourselves”Nicias realized they weren’t listening so he pretended to agree then started discussing the challenges and ended up just getting them pumped for war and they chose him to lead it with alcibiades and another guyAthenians were unable to execute Alcibiades plan because of failings in their democratic systemoAlcibiades was accused of defacing a statue, the trial was postponed by his enemies so they could get him on even bigger charges and out of the picturesDespite this, the three leaders still went for the invasion oThey left with a huge fleet, it was clear they wanted warTheir supporters were nervous of what would happen if Athens won and wanted to control them oThey closed their ports so the couldn't get supplies or repairsAt the same time, people in athens accused Alcibiades of trying to overthrow the democracyoSent a ship to get himoA fledoLeft Nic in chargeNic knew the war was a mistake but was afraid of what the public would say if he came back without tryingSyracuse convinced sparta to get in on it and in two years athens fleet was destroyedA&S fought another year, it was real bad, Athenian people staged a coup resulting in the end of democracyThucydides ends the history unresolved Author Xenophon writes in a separate account that in the following years athens regained and lost democracy a few times oSpartans defeated them and forced them to accept dependant status within sparta dominated greeceoAthens ultimately survived as a state

ConclusionAthens couldn't have defeated sparta if it didn't conquer pylos and cythera but should have left it there and left sicily alone Thucydides thinks that Pericles is the reason athens survived the plague oHis strategy was flawed but his broader vision was what athens needed- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Week Four - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Strategy: Hearing the Thunder (Ch1)Sun Tzu wrote The Art of War in approximately 500 BCoIt remains one of the most widely admired strategy worksTzu’s writings reflect the demands of a military sophisticated ageTzu viewed armed conflict as a practical tool for achieving state goals1st section of the book:oTo develop effective strategy assess capabilities of opposition in terms of his principles2nd secitonoUse the knowledge, from assessing enemy, in strategyoIts wiser to defeat enemy with superior strategy than brute forceoAll of his Methods depend on deceptionFinal sectionoSpiesStrategy: the first stepChinese rulers used to see war as a gentlemanly sport, demonstrating personal chivalry was importantIt was a quasi religious ceremonyTzu says that’s all obsoleteTo improve chances of success you should gather factual info and analyze it rationally Resist temptation to make military decisions for personal reasonsThe Art of War comments a lot on proper relationships between the ruler of state and military officers that lead troops Tzu gives 5 topics to study when studying war (they will help determine victory or defeat)oPoliticsoWeatheroTerrainoPersonal qualities of the commanderodoctrine None of these refer to the previously common super natural thingsTzu uses strategy to dismiss all superstitionSecond Step: Using one’s knowledge“Know your enemy and know yourself, in a hundred battles you will never be defeated”Brute force is never the best approachWar is costly and disruptive for all of societyWarfare is still an important tool for government but should be used carefullyWarfare requiresoLarge amounts of money Wealth and human and social capitaloIts super expensive to attack cities, avoid it if possibleYou have to spend months preparing and in that time low level commanders might get impatient and do something rashoNo matter how great one's resources you should use them as swiftly and efficiently as possibleoPay attention to timing

Conserve resources as much as possible but also act without hesitation if an opportunity for the advantage arisesTzu says his methods are worth mastering and that under the right conditions they will work without failoHowever also says that there are no recipe books to strategyoOne must plan every operations afreshoLearn from up to date reports about particular circumstances in which one will be fightingSituations within situationsTzu says ‘create situations’ to give yourself the advantage if they don’t already existThose who just wait for opportunities to show up may have to wait foreverJust knowing how to achieve victory doesn’t mean you can do it in practiceEven when there's no way to create the situation you want, make a situation that will make a way for you to make the situation…..The idea leaves strategists with the challenge to figure out what a suitable disposition might beOne way is to take advantage of how different types of forces can do different types of thingsoThis concept of combined arms warfare is common place through military historyoThe art of war discusses it in abstract terms One might use infantry to hold one's enemy in place while cavalry takes advantage and circles the enemy flankTerrain might restrict cavalry Japanese infantry devastated allied forces in WWIl using flank maneuvers like thisA large army that's dispersed its forces is no stronger in an actual battle than a smaller concentrated armyAll of these areas depend on having obedient troopso“The principle of cultivating one's own military capabilities”Lots of his book talks about this Tells commanders how to supply, organize, and lead troops to make them strong and versatileTzu emphasizes that attempts to develop military capabilities will only succeed if onepersists with themLeading an armyoLeading an entire army is little different from leading a small bandoLogistics are what makes it possible for them to practice strategyoTsu emphasizes central control (other writers focus on channeling independence in lower ranks)oIt's important to organize groups into a manageable system of units oEnsure that troops work as a team to play their part in strategists plansoNeed clear signalingoRestraint would be heros, your troops should perform consistentlyoPay attention to soldiers physical conditionsoStrategists should match their tactics to the circumstances of the individual campaign and the physiological state of subordinatesSuppliesoMilitary organization depends on suppliesoCan't dispatch forces until you have enough stuff, and access to replenish materialsTzu doesn't talk much about weapons - probably on purposeWu people though chariots did not work in marshy areas so the used more archersoWu introduces China to its own military inventionsBy recognizing connections to politics and strategy he suggests more ways for strategists to shape circumstances for their advantage oLike upsetting enemy alliances through diplomatic means

Just as one can use diplomacy to improve the situation for further battlefields you can use military strategy to improve a negotiating positionDeception Tzu always assumes the enemy starts off with the better hand All warfare is based on deception Need to hide your true motives even from your teamSend in lots of spies that can’t give any clues about your true intentionsFeed opposing spies fake infoEspionage gives commanders a source of information and deceptionDistract them with a verbal carrotMoving troops to a different position is risky because you don't want to expose your planExploit the opposing generals personal weaknessesoLook out for the vices ofOverconfidence, cowardice, short temperedness, defensive of honour, and soft heartednessThese 5 character flaws inevitably lead to ruin and they demand careful studyThe funny thing is that both sides can have this book and be using the same strategyConclucionNeither sentiment nor tradition was to stand in the way of logic and pragmatismNever wage war lightly Tzu was influential for a long time likely because he was intellectually modestOctober 11 2017The Age of the HorsemenRise of ChivalryTerm chivalry derives from word ‘chevalier’Chivalry denoted the ideals of the knightly classKnights equipped with:Full body armour: horses may also be armoured (originally chainmail later steel)ShieldHelmetLanceSwordSupremacy of horsemen made possible by:Introduction of the stirrup, c. 8th century ADThe lanceROMANS AND GREEKS HAD STIRRUPSMore control, speed, balance, stabilityCombination of the stirrup and lance make ‘the knight’, also had a sword for getting up close and personal Code of honour associated with chivalry, applies to knights, knights apply the code to each other, doesn’t apply to peasantsWars in Medieval EuropeHard to have stable state when you’re being raided endlesslyCharlemagne, late 8th and early 9th centuries ADSaracens and Vikings, 9th and 10th centuries ADEstablishment of feudalismNobles, peasants Types of warRebellions: nobles have armies and want powerPrivate wars: become fewer as state centralizesWars between kings (interstate - are a minority)Crusades

Ideas of ChivalryProwessMilitary gloryRise of courtesyService of ladiesCombination of:Military prowessCourtly culture Christianity Peace of God and Truce of God movementsProtection of non-combatants Don’t fight on certain daysRise of single combat and the idea of fair playChurch began saying that being a knight was a holy calling so you had to go through a ritual and be cleansed and blessed by a priest. Created a sense of moral responsibilitiesAspects of Chivalry TournamentsRansom (if you’re captured you gotta pay ransom). Courts of honour were established, they would shame those who didn’t keep their wordOrders of Chivalry Order of the GarterOrder of the Golden FleeceHoly monastic orders Order of the Temple (Templars)Order of the HospitalTeutonic Knights Crusades1st Crusade, 1095-1099 ADCaptured Jerusalem, 1099 AD (by sending tons of knights over)Creation of Kingdom of Jerusalem2nd Crusade, 1147 AD - 1187 Ad1187 AD, Saladin captures Jerusalem3rd Crusade, 1189-1192 AD1289-1291, destruction of Crusader kingdomConquest of Baltic region by Teutonic Knights, 13th century AD1242 AD, Teutonic Knights defeated by Russians at Lake Peipus1492, Capture of GranadaTHE MONGOLSRaided everything, no chivalry October 13 2017The Mongol Conquest: Video from last classUsed ruses on the battlefield (Sun Tzu style)Lots of training and practiceAll of horseback Professional merit based system, officer core, etc. CAUSES OF MONGOL SUCCESSAdaptation of new technologiese.g. siege equipment, horse + composite bow comboOrganization:Decimal structure of Mongol armyPromotion by merit

Trained soldiersUse of ruse as a tacticMobilityStrategic mobility – living off land, herding cultureTactical mobility on battlefieldSpeed and versatility on the battlefield Psychological warfareUse of terror 100 Years War, 1337-1453 AD (lasted 116 years)Kings of England were also vassals of Kings of France due to possessions in Normandy and AquitaineKing Edward III of England declared himself king of France (which rightfully angers King of France = start of war)1340, Battle of Sluys1346, Battle of Crecy1356, Battle of Poitiers = France King is captured1360, Treaty of Bretigny = Ransom is paid to get the King back (technically end of war)1369, War resumes (after consulting with lawyers to make sure the treaty was not broken)1389-1415, Truce1415, Battle of Agincourt1428-29, Siege of OrleansNaval power is important, England can sail to France safely once they have control of the channelHorses won’t run you down if you stay still but it’s terrifying having them running at youPutting obstacles up breaks up the horses and makes it harder for them to chargeThe plague hits, ⅓ of the population dies, man power is lost, times are rough Fear honour profit, here profit is the material interest of getting new land Prof says that all in all, this war was about Power and StatusNumbers matter, particularly in a protracted war, so eventually the french (who have more numbers) push the English back They’re wearing lots of heavy armour, tramping through the mud Weapons and TacticsCombined arms:Cavalry: lots of armour, deadliest force on battlefield at this timeInfantry: peasants, not heavily armouredArchersCrossbowLongbowRaids (chevauchees)Fortifications and siegesMultiple walls, a moat (towers to shoot from)Starving people out because assault is very difficultEnfilade: hit from the sideArtillery Battlefield BehaviourOccasional desire to seek pitched battleSome recklessness in battleRetreat discouragedLimited impact of chivalric ideas vs. militaristic necessityEg. fair play, decent treatment of prisoners, respect of civilians, honouring promises Decline of Horsemen1.Introduction of firearmsoNot accurate and heavy, difficult to carry on horsebackoHorses are big targets2.Increased centralization of state power

oModern nation states developing, able to mobilize larger, more disciplined armies that can stand ofagainst cavalryoKey is having disciplined guys who can stay in tight formation with no gaps so horses are unable to penetrate the infantry, can hold their ground, then the cavalry lose advantages3.Stronger, more disciplined infantry Combination of three means the horse becomes less and less important and by about 1500war has changedto something very different.Castles also becomemore non existentbecause of the development of the cannon. October 18 2017Important developments Growth in the power of states England, france, spain, ottoman empireRapid economic developmentTechnological advancesIncrease in seaborne trade More intl trade, means naval power is getting increasingly importantSignificant growth in size of armies1530-1710, European armies grow 1000%Armies grow significantly in size The Reformation (ideological element of war)Division of Europe on religious groundsMartin Luther hung up the list of complaints about the Roman Catholic church, Protestant churches start popping up that challenge religion and introduce a new one Henry VIII had six wives, split away from the Catholic church because he wanted to be able to divorce his wifeImperial expansionPortuguese expand along African coast in search of spice islands (Indonesia) o1498, Vasco de Gama reaches Indiao1492, Columbus “discovers” AmericaSpain: o1518, Cortez lands in MexicoFinds silver o1532-33, Pizarro defeats IncasPortuguese are first to actually start colonizing since they have really good access to the ocean and good portsSpanish hegemony 1492, Capture of GrenadaDrive out the Muslims that were controlling southern spainCharles VKing of Spain from 1516 (Holy Roman Emperor, really cool title but like not that cool irl)Inherits Netherlands, Austria, Bohemia, Moravia, etc.Holy Roman Emperor from 15191580, Philip II unites Spain and Portugal Land WarfareDecline of the knightDevelopment of gunpowder and firearmsBy 16th century has rendered old fortifications obsolete

Therefore, new types of fortifications able to sustain gunpowder: Trace ItalienneNew style of fortificationsForts: made with many points (citadel like) to be able to have many vantage points No longer tall thin walls, now short sloped thick wallsHandheld firearmsArquebusSlow to load, load from the top Gave way and musket developed, could fire up to 200 yards, much heavierThen pistols, very light, speed of the bullet depended on the length of the barrel, longer you can keep bullet in barrel, the more pressure can build, the faster, and further it could go Pistol had small barrels so didn’t get much distance. Calvary could use them because of their weight New cavalry tacticsCaracole: ride up to enemy, fire pistol, ride awayNot very strong or useful in their period, sometimes used to chasing people who retreated, or spying But the infantry was the main thing at this point (since they can use GUNS)All in all, war remains a slow process of sieges with loads of infantrymen (costs lots of resources)Pike squaresSimilar to Macedonian phalanx, but pikes have hooks on the endOften mercenaries (Swiss were best mercenaries in Europe at the time)Machiavelli was against mercenaries because of poor experience in Italy. He believed citizen militias were better (more loyal and more manpower)Spanish tercioGo into square with everyone pointing outwardPikemen in tandem with musketeers or arquebusiersOver time, number of pikes decreased, and number of muskets increasedRequired coordination and drillAdoption of linear formation (allowed most number of people to shoot at one timeMaurice of NassauLinear formation, reintroduction of roman type ideas which are influenced to some degree by Vegetius Influence of VegetiusDISCIPLINEIn favour of smaller, professional, really good army Needs drill, discipline, kinda like the Romans Alleged ‘Military Revolution’ Need for professionalism (kinda forgot to listen when he was talking about this)More structured, more organized, new tacticsSome say it was just a gradual evolution, not a revolution Debate over militia or mercenaries MachiavelliMercenaries are horribly unreliable, Machiavelli doesn’t like them cuz they rampaged up and down italy in the 15th century for themselves, not really for a cause Let’s have a huge mob of citizens militia (less expensive)Naval Warfare Ocean going naviesCannon deployed on shipsOar-driven galleys still used in MediterraneanUsed in shallow water groups would try to board one another ships.E.g. battle of Lepanto, 1571 (Spanish vs. Turkish)Habsburg-Valois Wars(reason why SPain became huge)France v Spain

Spain wins, helps make them the hegemonic powerAfter 100 years war, French says, we’ve got control, now let’s expand. Brings them into conflict with the SpanishHabsburg- Spanish (look at the map on the slide)Valois- French Struggle for control of Italy1495, French seize Naples1498, Spain drives French from NaplesLouis XII captures Milan1502-13, Spanish drive French from Italy1514, Francis I recaptures Milan1525, Francis defeated at PaviaSpain gains control of Italy Now France is cornered by spain on all sides, which is SAD.Italy was important to spanish because it is the entryway to the Spanish route that leads to netherlandsOctober 20 2017European/Ottoman Wars1453, Turks capture Constantinople1525, Suleiman crushes Hungarians at Mohacs1529, Siege of Vienna1565, Siege of Malta1571, Battle of Lepanto The Dutch Revolt, 1568-1648Revolt caused by taxes, religious differences, and Spanish oppression under Duke of AlvaDutch dont like taxes and Calvinist destroy churches1568: Spanish send in army and crushes revoltSpain is hugely in debt and can’t pay army1576, Spanish army mutinies1579, duke of Parma begins offensive (new general to crush mutiny)1585, English intervention (cause Spanish was getting too close, really angers Spain)1609-21, Truce1648, Treaty of Munster William of Orange, leads revolt against the Spanish, they basically become the royal family in Netherlands. Duke of Alba crushes the rebellion.England v. SpainEnglish privateers attack Spanish John Hawkins & Francis DrakeLetters of marquee and reprisalLegal way that English loots the SpanishSelling these letters creates version of legalised piracy because people were willing to pay for the lettersPhilip II of Spain supports Mary Queen of ScotsEngland supports Dutch Revolt1588, Spanish ArmadaEnglish wage maritime war v. Spain1589, attack on Lisbon1591, attempts to capture Spanish treasure fleet1591, capture of Cadiz (can’t hold it so they pull out after ravaging it)Example of naval v. land power & guerre de course

Period of very rapid transition, development of gunpowder, new types of war, war is becoming more global, armies are becoming larger, fortifications are becoming bigger, it’s getting a lot more expensive. Basically lots of rapid modernization. Starting to see aspects of modern army: structure, organization, ranks, etc. November 1 2017Naval WarfareImportance of the Sea in War70% of the world is waterTransport of goods and people is fast and more efficient by water than by landFirst war-ships in mediterranean sea by 1200BCNaval warfare in Ancient GreeceTriremesThree oar rowsUsed in coastal waters onlyPrimary use: rammingVery expensive (only rich states can be naval powers)Require skillful seamanship Salamis, 480 BC (Greeks vs. Persia)The Battle of SalamisSent someone to persian king, pretending to be a defector of the greek sailorsGreek had a smaller fleet, get persians into narrow passage way so they can’t move and are all bunched up, so the greeks can hit themThat’s why the defector went, to help lure them in saying it would be advantageousPersian fleet is destroyed Roman Naval WarfareQuinquereme & CorvusNo one’s ever seen a picture, the picture is what they think it looks like, having five rows of oars, like a trireme had threeRomans were land lovers, a lot of their fleets destroyed cuz they didn’t really know how to use it, plus bad weather, plus they’d lose, etc. Romans fought at sea as if they were fighting on land Corvus: like a bridge with a hook onto the end. Get close, drop the corvus onto it, the hook digs into the ship and their soldiers, who were packed onto the ships would run across the bridge. Other groups didn’t keep as many soldiers on their ships cuz they didn’t think it was needed. Romans used their strengths on land to become better at fighting at seaOther examples of Naval PowersVikingsNorway SwedenSailed into what’s now England and Scotland, Iceland, Greenland, Newfoundland American civil warBritish empire British conquered a quarter of the world because they controlled the seas Ex. you can’t march an army from england to india Modern USAAlfred Thayer Mahan(most unoriginal guy ever when titling books)Born 1840Served in American Civil War, 1861-65President of NAval War College

Author of:The Influence of Sea Power Upon History, 1660-1783The Influence of Sea Power Upon History, 1793-1812Arguing for the rise of american dominance, thinks America should have a huge navy, so he depicts seapower as the one way to have all the powerTo make America great: you need to build your navy, worked for Britain, USA should too Criticized that he only said this to promote his naval college when he said you should only focus on navy, no military SeapowerMahan defines seapower as:Command of the sea through naval superiority:That combination of maritime commerce, overseas possessions, and privileged access to foreign markets that produce national wealth and greatnessIn other words:Strength, in maritime trade and commerceControl of ocean resourcesHaving seapower makes you rich, even in times of peaceAbility to project military force into and from the seaHaving large naval force during war, you can continue on your trade. If you don’t controlthe sea, your trade ships will be sunk When Mahan is writing, it’s in a time of considerable change. Before civil war, lots of sailing ships made of wood, since, many iron clad, made of steel. Previously driven by sails, then driven by steam, coal, until about the 1900s, then replaced by oil. Cannons on shipsOriginally quite short rangeToo much gas to create big explosion puts too much pressure on the barrelAround 1860s, barrels made of steel, to have more powerful barrels = more powerful shellsRifling the barrel: there’s more grooves in it, changes from ball, to more big bullet shape with two little pieces that hold it into the grooves, so it spins and can go further “Some of these guns are monstrously huge” Mahan’s Factors of Seapower1.Geographical positiona.Some places are simply better than others for access to the sea1.Physical conformationa.The fact that britain’s an island, it’s a better shape than say germanyb.You could be really well placed but not have a good port or safe harbour 1.Extent of territorya.Britain is quite small compared to US (bigger usually means more resources)1.Populationa.More people the better, more people to recruit to become sailors 1.National charactera.Nation of shopkeepers vs nation of types that can fight and sail (Human Capital)1.Character and policy of governmentsa.Does the government want to promote naval power or not?Mahan’s TheoriesWars are won by economic strangulation of enemies, caused by control of the seaThe stoppage of commerce compels peaceSeapower should be used to gain ‘control of the seas’Control of seas = ability to use seas as you wish to, while depriving enemy of the same abilityNaval forces should be concentratedFocus should be on destroying enemy’s fleetIf you destroy others military ships, then you have no problems Sink them Disparaged ‘commerce raiding’ (guerre de course) Once you destroy their fleet, you can destroy their commerce. If you don’t destroy their fleet, theircommerce will thrive and be protected

Don’t send your ships hunting down other’s commerce ships, focus on destroying the enemy fleet Build battleships, not small shipsSeapower is the decisive factor in warDon’t waste resources on support of land operations Point of navy is to destroy the other navy, not to shoot from your ships at land Julian CorbettSea power should support land powerIt’s the combination of land and sea power that makes you great Preference for:Joint operationsAmphibious operationsSmaller shipsCanadian in WWINo more big battles at sea, probs last one in 1944Later DevelopmentsSubmarines and torpedo boatsReturn of guerre de courseUse of airpower at seaAircraft carriers Fighting at sea is no longer just about fighting at sea. Your battleship can’t fire as far as an aircraft can. During WWII it became about who controls the air also controls the sea. Aircraft carriers become the most important part of sea power. November 3 2017Strategy: ClausewitzLifeBorn 1780Fought v. France, 1793Entered military school 1801Influenced by General Scharnhorst1806, Battle of Auerstadt1812, Joins Russian Army1815, Fights at Ligny and Wavre1831, Dies Historical context of On War18th century warfare dominated by: small, professional armieslinear formationssieges, avoidance of battle.French revolution begins 1789. Change in how wars were fought, relatively small professional armies, fight by standing in lineNow they fight by seeking, rather than avoiding. French get massive numbers of troops and overwhelm the army. Fight in columns instead of lines French levee en masse. Offensive use of armies, seeking decisive battle.Scientific approach to warIncreasingly important from late 17th century onwards, especially in siege warfare (eg. Vauban)Dietrich Heinrich von BülowWar seen as determined by mathematical principles Figuring out the best way to build a castleMore methodical, math, scientific Antoine-Henri JominiSwiss. Served in Napoleon’s armiesBelieved strategy is controlled by scientific principles

Urged concentration of force against decisive point (probably a point on enemy’s line of communications) Argued in favour of interior lines Get inside, amass your forces = win War as interaction War is an ‘interaction’, not ‘the action of a living force upon a lifeless mass, but always the collision of twoliving forcesMathematical concepts of war are wrong:They aim at fixed values but in war everything is uncertain… They consider only unilateral action,whereas war consists of a continuous interaction of opposites.War as chanceNo other activity is so continuously or universally bound up with chanceWar as politicsWar is an act of policy… a true political instrument, a continuation of political intercourse, carried out with other meansThe political object is the goal, war is the means of reaching itDivergence of political and military aims Need to overcome enemy means military priorities may take precedence over political onesEscalation:War is an act of force, and there is no logical limit to the application of that force. Each side therefore, compels its opponent to follow suit; a reciprocal action is started which must lead in theory to extremesAbsolute v. Real WarTotal war is constrained by politics Tendency to go towards absolute war is restrained by politics Clausewitz on strategy Tactics teaches the use of armed forces in the engagement; strategy is the use of engagements for the objectof warModern theorists include also the operational level of war, and grand strategy: includes all areas- military, economy, diplomacyMilitary operations must serve the political aimImplies political control of the military The ‘Remarkable Trinity’= people + armed forces + government = WIN1.Violence and passion2.Uncertainty and chance3.Political purpose and effectAssociated in turn with:The people The armed forcesThe government Strategic Advice- Direct ApproachWar is an act of force to compel the enemy to do our willThe aim of warfare is to disarm the enemyThe only means of this : combatCentre of gravityNumbers will determine victory Friction and FogEverything in war is very simple, but the simplest thing is difficultFrictionHuman factor, weather, etc

Fog of war (can’t predict stuff, intelligence is useless)Clausewitz rejects role for intelligenceRequire determination to be overcome Friction is all the things that can possibly go wrong, user error, human factors, weather, money issuesFog is that no one really knows what’s happening beyond themselves *** WAR IS AN ARENA OF IMPERFECT KNOWLEDGE Missing elementsClausewitz pays little or no attention to:Guerrilla warfareNaval warfareEconomic aspects of warEthics of war November 8 2017Factors of imperial expansion:Industrialization Technology (weapons, railways and boats)Prof says the part in the book on how boats got stronger, faster, better is really important. (same with guns and railways, so we should look into that).MedicineOpened up Africa, since there are many diseases in Africa (malaria, etc.). Once treatments are available for these diseases, Africa becomes more accessible.State organizationBigger armies need more organization. Need more advanced bureaucracy.This is made possible because the empires are getting really rich, and imperial expansion then makes them richer (positive feedback loop)oThose factors are not reasons to colonize, but make it possible to do so. BoatsSteamships: oSteam boats, faster.oRequire lots of coal.Ironclad and DreadnoughtsoPut metal on top of normal boatoCan be sailed, but also powered by steamoDreadnought : revolutionized battleship design because of massiveness and guns on rotating turrets. Put every other ship in the world in the shitter.Creates a certain “armsrace” for dreadnoughts. European empires:Most of Africa is colonized 19th centuryBritish expansion:British has a very powerful industrial economy, and international markets and commerce is under their boot. (industry and money = power)Royal navy is biggest in world, but army is relatively small (naval power)Causes of colonialism:oBook says colonies = acquiring markets to create demand

Prof disagrees, he says the colonies were not profitable at all (except some parts of India)Costs for defence, admin, and such. Prof says colonization was either for :Concerns for future safety and denying opportunities to enemies (especially for India, need control of sea route)Profits for some very powerful peeps elite (kinda illuminati theory here)Cultural factors of muscular christianity and christian militarismBritish Wars:1st and 2nd Sikh Wars (1845-1849)1857: Indian mutiny against East India CompanyoMutiny is crushed, EIC is sent away and British take back controlAfghan wars (1= 1839-42, 2= 1878-80)o1st one, doesnt go well (british are afraid Russian will get into afghanistan, so they invade) only one man survives after an uprising.o2nd: goes better, British win??Opium warsoChinese dont like trade, so they hate that British sell opium there.oAfter the two wars, China loses and needs to open up the markets.oThe wars were results of prestige and honour ( from mistreatment of british peeps from chinese)oGunboat policy (importance of gunboats for the win)Zulu warsoEnglish invade zululand in 1878oEnglish destroyed in 1879, IsandlwanaoEnglish reinvade and then win (through military power and technological advances)Boer Wars:oDutch descendants in south africa against british (and dominions)oDiscovery of Gold in Transvaal : Boer can now buy weapons from germansoHuman rights argument to make Boer states into evil states, whip up public opinion to legitimize war. They wanted to make the Boer do the first move (more legitimacy).oBritish send troops to cape colony, Boers declare war on english and invade :Sieges by Boers of Ladysmith, Mafeking and KimberleyBritish keep getting fucked until they win from pouring people into cape colonyoBoers dont give up, they hide in the bushes (guerilla warfare)To fight this, british burn down civilian towns and invite the civilians to“voluntary concentration camps”oTreaty of Vereeniging 1902Some racist shit goes down, as alwaysEgypt and Sudan:o1869: Suez canal: ??o??Why did they win at the end?oTechnological advances: magazine bullets, faster, steel artillery and machine gunsoProfessional army (trained, disciplined, organized)oTerror tactics ( burn down villages, concentration camps in boer wars)

oAbandonment of red coats (during boer war, asymmetric warfare needs camouflage)Khaki uniforms, more camouflageoFire and manoeuvreMaximise the angles of firing while getting closer to enemy (fire and move up, fire and move up)Requires professional army, needs lots of disciplineoCavalry and mounted infantryImportant in Boer wars, because huge prairiesHorse as a vehicle, not a weaponBringing back the lanceNaval arms raceoRise of other naval powers : US, germany and Japan.oFocus on battleships and dreadnoughtsoWhen enemy has more weapon, u need more, etc. Japan power:oBattle of tsushima, 1905 : Japan attacks Russia and russia lose the war. (naval power was decisive)November 17 2017: Causes of World War 1Causes of WW1Preemptive war against RussiaFear:Austria-hungary and concerns about rise of nationalismGermany and fear of declining powerHonour:Assassination of archduke a challenge demanding responseDesire to avoid further humiliations ProfitColonial competitionKinda not solid because english didn’t join until after the invasion of belgium French desire to regain alsace and lorraine Causes of Stalemate in WW1Technology Favours Defence:Increased firepower - rifles and machine guns ArtilleryFortifications and trenchesLack of flanksGoing around the enemy to surround them or get inside themBut trenches were in the way of doing this so you had to attack head on Communication difficulties Radios were big and heavy, they were in planes but that was itHad to rely on telephonesEnemies could cut linesAs you advance and take new territory, lines didn’t just extend so as you advance you’re basically cut off of communication Lack of Mobility for Attackers:Defenders can bring reserves up quickerAttackers cannot sustain rapid advances logistically

Issues of trains, as you advance you have to wait for the engineers to lay tracks, so there are no supplies Makes it hard to hold territory in the face of bullets and to advance and then hold territory when you advance Overcoming the StalemateTechnological advancesAircraft and accurate artillery Using planes to watch where artillery was landing and planes would report back about accuracy more specific purpose than just scouting Light, portable machine guns TanksBring the firepower, became a bit more protectedTactical reformsSmall unit initiative, shock troops, infiltration tacticsSoldiers had little experience, through them out there and hope for the bestStarted putting them into smaller units, and giving independence to decide what tactics were most effective given what they’d seen Shock troops: used infiltration tactics, don’t try to beat the front line, try to push through it and attack their reinforcements Creeping barragesSoldiers walking with artillery Combined arms operations: infantry, artillery, air Naval Warfare and Indirect Approach1.Gallipoli Campaigna.Used navy to reach the beaches, doesn’t go well, difficult to attack from beaches, this one was extra hard1.German Submarine Campaigna.Designed to sink critical British ships b.Initially is successfulc.Eventually Britain gets upper hand and brings US into the war when a ship containing US civilians was hit Concludes that indirect approach won’t work in the face of a highly trained, highly motivated enemy Maneuver, speed, deception Basil and something- missed this slide Blitzkrieg (1940)Something about planes John Boyd and the OODA loopObserverOrientDecideActDo it as fast as you can, faster than your opponent Indirect Approach in Modern EraAmerican ‘Revolution in Military Affairs’Command, control, communications, computers, intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance (C4ISR)Network-enabled operationsPromises to overcome the friction and fog of war How Were Wars Actually Won?WW1 and WW2Methodical battle (vimy, normandy)Shooting and shooting and wearing them downMass and attrition Gulf War, 1991/1992Strategic bombingRapid land attack

But- firepower!Not about manoeuvrability, about bomb-ability Iraq 2003Relatively small invasion forceInitial quick victoryBut- small invasion force unable to prevent insurgency Taking and holding territory very different things Conclusion: Does Mass Still Matter?Sun Tzu says no, it doesn’tClausewitz says yes it does November 22 2017: Total War - American Civil War, 1861-1865Total War refers to the complete mobilization of all sectors of a country (economic, political, etc.), thereby creating massive, industrialized warfareCauses of War:oSlavery is an extremely important element on the American Civil War. The Northern and Southern halves of the United States fought each other over this topic; Slavery was encouraged in the southern States, whereas it is forbidden in the North (Cultural Divergence)oDiverging economic interests (e.g., differences over tariffs); The North is increasingly industrialized, while the South wants free trade for its agricultural base.oSouthern sense of honor: As slavery is condemned in the North, the South wants free trade for its agricultural baseoThe election of Abraham Lincoln, 1860, enraged the South, as he war a freedom fighter who fought for the banishment of slavery; Lincoln was also a RepublicanoFormation of Confederate States of AmericaoApril, 1861 - War BeginsWeapons and Tactics:oThe Battles in the American Civil War are extremely bloody, due to longer ranged and more deadly weapons. Rifled guns, which were longer ranged, became increasingly common. People still use older tactics, however, thereby lining up and firing in square-like formationsoTrench warfare, such as in Petersburg, is reminiscent of the First World War. Cavalry is mainly used for reconnaissance and for raids. Rifles have the ability to slaughter horses and donkeys, thereby making this method useless. Guerilla warfare is somewhat present, but most of the tacts are similar, if not the same, as before Total War. Total War:oConscription is central to warfare of this scale. The state is slowly gaining control of and using industrialization to its advantage. Northerners have the advantage of railways. Railways are more prominent in the Civil War, and in the North, as most railway companies and factories existed in the North. The telegraph gave people instantaneous communication over any distance, improving strategy greatly.Naval Warfare:oNaval warfare was not greatly present in the war; however, a blockade of the South occurred. Northern ships attempted to capture southern port landings from the sea. The North had access to ironclads, giving them naval superiority (which helped contribute to their overall victory in the war).oThe CSS Hunley, which was built and sunk in 1864, was the first use of a submarine. Commerce raiding by the South also occurred. The CSS Alabama sunk several northern, commercial ships.

Eastern theatre of war, 1861-221 July 1861, 1st Battle of Bull Run/ManassasSpring/summer 1862 – Union invasion of Virginia, under General McClellanSeptember 1862, Lee’s invasion of the North, Battle of Antietam Eastern theatre of war, 1863-5May 1863, Battle of ChancellorsvilleoKnown as Lee’s ‘perfect battle’ he made a risky decision to divide his army and go in front of enemy's lines to fo to its far and even though his army was at the beginning half the side of the unionsoUsed surprise tactics and were very successful July 1863, Battle of GettysburgoIt's a meeting engagement, you don't al begin lines up people gradually come onto the battle bit by bit, the key is to get there faster than your enemy to get the advantage oProves how hard it's becoming to advance a KM in battle, precursor to WWI1864, Wilderness Campaign and siege of Petersburg1865, Surrender of Richmond Naval power was important but Mckellen was very slowWestern Theatre of War:oDuring the American Civil War, the South could be divided into three fronts, including the Mississippi River, the Eastern sector, and the Western region. These Eastern and Western fronts are divided by the Appalachian Mountains. Trying to advance a kilometer across an open field, especially with the importance of firepower, makes the American Civil War especially bloody. Richmond’s capture ends the war.o1862 - Battle of Shiloho1862 - Confederate Invasion of KentuckyoAdvance Along Mississippi RiveroMay - July 1863, Siege of VicksburgoSeptember 1863, Battle Chickamagua and Siege of ChatanoogaoNovember 1863, Battle of Chatanoogao1864: Capture of Atlanta; Hood’s Failed Campaign in TennesseeoSherman’s ‘March to the Sea’Reasons for Northern Victory:oSuperior resources of the NorthoIndustry (Greater Level of Production)oManpower (Simply Outnumbered)oSuperior Strategy (War of Attrition)oNorthern Naval SuperiorityoSuperior Northern OrganizationsoBetter understanding of logistics and supply; Greater technological advancesoSouthern sense of honor was a weaknessoTotal War is determined not only by numbers, but also by organizationNovember 24, 2017: Air PowerAir Power: A measurement of the ability to deliver troops, equipment, and weapons from the air. The first flight took place in 1903 by the Wright Brothers. Consequently, the first use of air warfare took place in 1911 by the Italians bombing Libya.

Without airpower, many powers would be unsuccessful in World War One.. In the American Civil War, air balloons were used for reconnaissance, enabling one party to examine the battlefield and understand the enemy's strategy.Uses of Air Power in World War One:oReconnaissance: Due to the level of preparation for massive attacks, reconnaissance was used to see if the opponent was stockpiling ammunition.oArtillery Spotting: Aircraft was used for artillery spotting to see where artillery was landing and adjust the angle of fire and positioning. Thereby, the use of airpower allowed a party to waste less material.oCommand and Control: Aircraft was also able to provide support to land forces, through bombing and advanced artilleryoClose Air Support amd Strategic Bombing: Strategic bombing is the process of fighting and bombing important factories, anti-aircraft system, etc., thereby supporting land forces.oAir-to-Air Combat (Efforts to Acquire ‘Air Superiority’): To prevent the bombingof these important strategic forces, fighter planes developed and air-to-air became much more important to warfare in general. Air combat became a central component of the First World War.Guilio Douhet: The Italian general and author of “The Command of the Air,” Douhet argued that air power would be the decisive force in future war. Once command of the airwas won, operations should focus on attacks on enemy cities. Such attacks would cause civilian morale to collapse. Victory would rapidly follow.oThis theory has many issues, including inaccurate bombings in World War One and the difficulty of destroying a city. People do not simply surrender from fighting them. Instead, civilians might rebel and fight back. Regardless of the city infrastructure, the opponent's army must still be defeated in order for a secure victory.Billy Mitchell saw a role for aircraft other than bombing. Specifically, he believed that aircraft could be used for tactical roles rather than strategic ones. Billy Mitchell recognized that aircraft could be used as sea, and to support naval and land-based operations. Mitchell was the first person to sink a naval carrier using aircraft. Warden believes that the enemy's military forces is a system consisting of the army, communications, civilian morale, etc. These system bits interconnect in important ways, and Warden believes that where these points connect is where the system is weakest. Warden represented this system with a five-ring model. The rings decrease in importance the further they are from the centre.oThe center of these rings is leadership, including the government or military generals. Next is the organic essentials, such as the communication system, whichis important in running the system. After organic essentials is infrastructure, including roads, factories. The next ring is the population, and lastly is the fielded forces.oWarden believes that attacking the army (or fielded forces) is the worst strategy a general can use. Instead, strategies should be focussed on kidnapping a military leader or overthrowing the government. By attacking these interconnected rings, certain nodes appear that make the opponents appear weak. When these nodes are attacked, the enemy is then paralyzed.

Uses of Air Power in World War Two:oInvention of Radar - Air DefenceoOperations to Gain Air SuperiorityoStrategic BombingoSupport to Ground Operations (Close Air Support, Reconnaissance, Artillery Spotting)oSupport to Naval Operations (Anti-Submarine Warfare, Aircraft Carriers, etc.)oLogistics (Transport of Personnel and Supplies)oAirborne Operations (Gliders and Paratroopers)Since World War Two, a major power of airpower was nuclear deterrence. Most nuclear weapons were attached to airplanes instead of being shot from rockets. oHelicopters were also used to shape war in different ways; however, helicopters were less heavily armored and were therefore used for different purposes. Americans used several helicopters in the Vietnam War.oWith developments in technology, precision-guided missiles were created, allowing the military to waste fewer resources. Instead of dropping hundreds of bombs that would not fit anything, one guided bomb would be much more effective. oDrones also give a party a huge advantage, as no loss of life prevails. Space power also gives parties an advantage, as the military is able to take out an enemy's satellites. Without satellites, a great deal of the opponent's technology will be unusable.oElectronic WarfareoSpace PowerAir Power in ActionGulf War, 1991oWarden had a big influence on this, Americans attached across all ‘rings’oUnclear what really won the war, if it was crushing the population and killing lots of the enemies, or if it was applying strategic powerKosovo, 1999oOnly real examples of a war won fully by the airRole in counterinsurgency (Iraq/Afghanistan)? oAir crafts can’t actually hold ground so thier role n insurgency is limitedIn summaryAir power is extremely importantGive lots of advantagesBut except for Kosovo war we don't have any examples of it winning entirely by itself 8November 29 2017: Weapons of Mass DestructionNuclear weapons can be divided into three categories: fission, fusion, and radiological (“dirty bombs”). Fission bombs are often made from Uranium-235 or Plutonium-239. Uranium-235 is created by uranium enrichment from U-238, which involves spinning uranium hexafluoride in centrifuges. Uranium enrichment to about 90 percent of U-235 isrequired for a fission bomb. These weapons also require that the uranium reach a “critical mass,” or a certain amount of material required to create a nuclear reaction. The power of these weapons exists between one and 500,000 kilotons.

Fusion (Thermonuclear/Hydrogen) bombs use deuterium and tritium, fusing to form Helium. These weapons require a lot of energy to start, and therefore involves a fission bomb to create a larger chain reaction (up to 50 megatons of power)Nuclear bombs often have a flash (with light and radiation), and are followed by extreme heat and a air or ground blast.Radiological weapons, or ‘dirty bombs’, involve spreading radioactive material using a conventional explosive.The likely damage is small. These weapons will only spread about a few-hundred yards, while wind may take the materials a bit farther (This is not a weapon of mass destruction).Tactical uses (counterforce): Nuclear weapons are used as part of a battle to respond to larger threatsStrategic uses (counter-value): Bombing cities of removing infrastructure; Disproportionate amount of destruction for any political objectiveMain purpose (Deterrence)oMutually Assured Destruction (1950s): Nobody will wage nuclear war, as both parties will then lose in one way or another. You have to convince the other party that you are actually willing to fire a nuclear weapon, which can be difficultoKahn’s ‘Ladder of Escalation (Image on Right). You do not have to go strictly from 0-100. There are other actions and signals that can be made. Certain steps are grouped into larger categories.oFlexible Response and true use of nuclear weaponsCold War deterrence based on:oInvulnerable second strike capability: What happens if the opponent attacks first? If the opponent can destroy your weapons first, you cannot deter the opponent or attack. The second strike capability refers to having enough weapons so that the opponent is always able to attack, even after you attack them first. Therefore, the strategy was to diversify your nuclear arsenal in the land, air, and sky (and alwaysincrease your nuclear arsenal)Nuclear Triad’Nuclear Treaties included the non-proliferation treaty, the seabed treaty, the outer space treaty, the Antarctic Treaty, SALT 1 and 2, INF, START 1 and 2, and SORT.Biological weapons include viruses, bacteria, fungi, and toxins. Examples include anthraxand ricin (which no known antidote exists)Disadvantages of Biological Weapons:oNot all biological weapons (such as Anthrax is infectious). All biological weaponshave to be infectious and spread to be really effective. These weapons often can also be treated (usually with antibiotics)oThese weapons are often difficult to produce in a deliverable form: Producing biological weapons is not difficult; however, they have to be temperature-controlled and carefully set-off to be effective.oThese weapons are difficult to disseminate. Nuclear, cooled warheads may be needed for these weapons. Biological weapons are technically weapons of mass destruction, but guns and bullets are easier to use.Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention (1972)

oSignatories promise not to produce or stockpile biological weapons, and not to produce or stockpile the means of dissemination biological weapons in a hostile way.oSignatories permitted to keep limited quantities for medical research and to prepare defences. The only American deaths from Anthrax came from these research facilities in 2001. No verification process existed.oChemical weapons involve chemical reactions that cause deaths on a mass scale. The first use of chemical weapons in large scale was during World War One.Types of Chemical Weapons (Delivered through Gas, Aerosol, or Liquids):oChoking Agents - Phosgene and ChlorineoBlister Agents - Mustard GasoBlood Agents - CyanideoNerve Agents - Sarin, Tabun, and VXoIncapacitating Agents - Tear GasDisadvantages of Chemical Weapons:oLarge quantities of chemical weapons are required. In World War One, you needed a million tons of certain gases to kill one person.oThe effectiveness is reduced by adverse meteorological conditions. If the wind blows in the wrong direction, the attack could prove to be counterproductive. Some people may use chemical weapons to render physical infrastructure useless.oProtective measures against chemical weapons are also possible.Chemical Weapons Convention (1993)oAbout 180 countries have signed this convention, agreeing never to use chemical weapons, not to develop, produce, stockpile, or retain chemical weapons, not to transfer chemical weapons to another party, and to destroy any chemical weapons they have. The Americans have failed to do this. The Russians just completed this.oTo verify compliance with the treaty, the Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons was setup to verify this compliance. This organization cannot act or verify the use of chemical weapons in war-torn countries, such as Syria. Wemay be happy to turn over chemical and biological weapons (due to their ineffectiveness).December 1, 2017: Insurgency and CounterinsurgencyInsurgencies are “organized movements aimed at the overthrow of a constituted government through the use of subversion and armed conflict. Counterinsurgencies (COIN) are military, paramilitary, political, economic, psychological, and civic actions take by a government to defeat insurgency.oRebellions and insurgencies are synonymous; Although insurgencies are believed to have happened more often since 1945, the history of war states shows that insurgencies have always been prominentInsurgent theories arose from the Chinese Rebellions in the 1940s and 1950s; Insurgents seek to win power and support; Insurgents do not only use aggressive tactics, they also use political methods

Besides propaganda, militias use terrorism (attacking and murdering individuals, while using mass scare tactics) and guerilla warfare (attacking the sources of the enemy’s weakness, instead of the army)Insurgencies aim to sow disorder and incite sectarian violence. These groups attempt to weaken the government, economy, and infrastructure, while intimidating the civilian population. Insurgencies may try to kill government leaders, causing a national breakdown.Additionally, these groups may attempt to fix and intimdate the police and military forces, by inciting fear within the population and making life more dangerous.Mao Tse Tung wrote “On Protracted War,” stating victory will go to the side with the strongest will. Three stages of insurgency exist, including strategic defense (mobilization and organization), strategic stalemate (guerilla war), strategic counteroffensive (conventional war). If one stage fails, you do not simply give up. Instead, you retract to the previous stage and keep going.oChairman Mao believed that if your party could outlast the enemy, you will ultimately be the victor; Therefore, if you have the political will and the means to outlast another, you will ultimately be victoriousMao believed that revolutions are won by winning over the lower-class, specifically the countryside peasants; Communist revolutions cannot be won if the changes are spearheaded by the top elite class“The guerilla must be in the population as little fishes in the ocean.” The ocean is the population and the guerilla is the fish. The population gives the guerilla the power and will to continue on. The key to success lies in the population for Mao. Guerilla warfare continues until enough weaponry and resources have been stockpiled to wage conventional war.oInsurgency is therefore a struggle for the “hearts and minds” of the people.When discussing counterinsurgency, most government and parties take purely military means, focussing on killing the insurgents. They focus on removing the civilian population either throughethnic cleansing or concentration camps.COIN strategies may focus on winning the support of the civilian population. “Liberal wars” takethe hearts and minds of individuals, while improving the situation of the civilian population to ensure stability, and gain the trust of the population.The Whole of Government Approach focuses on defense, development, and diplomacyRobert Thompson identifies five principles for COIN:o(1) The government must have a clear political aim: Insurgencies are fundamentally political problems. People must be unhappy about a series of issues. The Government must select a realistic political aim first, which all plans must follow.o(2) The government must function in accordance with the law. You want people to respect the government, and this can only be done when the Government follows its own laws and is seen as a respectable institution.o(3) The government must have an overall plan. Centralized action must take place, in which all sections of the Government are taking on a unified plan of action.o(4)The government must give priority to defeating the political subversion not the guerrillas. The solution to insurgencies are ultimately political. You have to consider how your plan might enrage the insurgents or other citizens. If you flatten a village to attack the guerillas, you simply give the insurgency more

reasons to continue fighting. You might have to act in a restrained manner, therefore proving that the Government is worth supporting.o(5) The government must secure its base area first. Ensure that the base is secure and attractive. From those insurgents looking in from the outside, this base of operations may appear rather attractive to less radical insurgents. Once this base issecure, the Government can start to slowly expand and retake the country.British Counterinsurgency Principles:oRecognition of the political nature of the problem, and therefore the solution.oCivilian supremacy (Civilians must be in-charge, as these people set-up the policies of the country)oIntelligence: Intelligence can be extremely important and helpful, especially with technological developments. Proper intelligence allows you to identify the targets,and plan operation to attack and kill the right individuals. People will not give out high-level intelligence if you are not well liked.oSplitting the insurgent from the people by: (1) Propaganda (Control of social media and the Internet allows a party to gain support for their overall cause); (2) Hearts and Minds (Parties must give their supporters a great cause to believe in); (3) Physical barriers (Once you separate these people, you can use minimum violence to destroy the enemies and the overall insurgency)oDestroying the isolated insurgentsoPolitical reform to prevent recurrence (Once the insurgency is defeated, you still have not defeated the actual philosophy that exists; You still have to focus on rebuilding and shifting these thought processes to prevent future insurgencies)Legitimacy as “Main Objective of COIN (Indicators of Legitimacy):oAbility to provide security for the populaceoSelections of leaders at a frequency and in a manner considered just and fairoHigh level of popular participation in or support for the political processoCulturally acceptable (or low) level of corruptionoCulturally acceptable level of political, economic, and social developmentoHigh level of regime acceptance by major social institutionsAmerican COIN Principles:oUnity of Effort: All the parts of the Government need to be working in the same way. This is even more difficult when the counterinsurgency is happening in a foreign country. These two countries have to agree on and support a plan of action.oPolitical Factors Are PrimaryoIntelligenceoInsurgents must come from supportoRule of Law: Institution a democracy and acting accountableoLong-Term Commitment: If citizens think you are going to leave tomorrow, the current regime and its supporters will not follow and support you.oManage Information: If there’s a propaganda war, you have to win it. With a losing media battle, your citizens back home may not support the operation, causing your government to come home. This would be considered devastating and a political and military loss.Criticisms of COIN Doctrine:

oBased on Western concepts of legitimacy, which not relevant to local conditions: Different forms of legitimacy, such as the differences between religious and legal-rational legitimacy. How we define legitimacy is important for how we react and engage counter-insurgencies.oHearts and minds operations do not work, and may even be counterproductive. If you are convinced with one perspective, you are unlikely to easily change your minds. Building a well or school could be seen as an intrusionon private property, pr interfering with something that a country does not understand.These development projects may also increase unemployment (e.g., instituting washing machines). Development monies may also result in a high-level of corruption within a foreign country.oCOIN theory is based on a false reading of history: Successful COIN was always much more violent than supposed.