Enhancing Oil Production: The Role of Industry 4
.0 Technologies
School
Texas A&M University, Corpus Christi**We aren't endorsed by this school
Course
BUSINESS 103
Subject
Information Systems
Date
Dec 12, 2024
Pages
117
Uploaded by MajorStarDolphin38
CHAPTER 1INTRODUCTION1.1 Background of the study The determination of the quantity and the quality of petroleum and petroleum products is of greatimportant to the oil and gas industry. Several measures have been put in place by the interestedparties in the industry to ensure accountability and reliability of metering systems. Thesemeasures includes but, not limited to constant monitoring and periodic maintenance ofhydrocarbon measuring devices. The devices monitored are temperature transmitters, pressuretransmitters, differential pressure switches and transmitters, flow meters, valve limits switches,pipe provers and auto-sampler systems. Because of the importance of the monitoring system,lease automatic custody transfer (LACT) unit and control room operators from indigenous oilproducing companies, third party companies and government regulatory agencies are deployed towork in a hazardous environment in an offshore location for monitoring on regular basis, theactual readings and behaviors of these measurement instruments. At several occasions,accommodation, feeding, transportation and wellbeing of these operational personnel havecreated unsurmountable challenges to the stakeholders and have been responsible among otherthing, for the high cost of production of petroleum and petroleum products. According tobusiness newspaper energy review of September 15th, 2020, oil and gas company operators haveblamed the high cost of production on obsolete systems and technologies. To attain optimalperformance and bring down the high cost of production of crude oil in Nigeria, more sensors areneed to be deployed to transmit data to people at remote locations to monitor and this cannot beachieved without the involvement of the embedded information technology in every process1
including measurement (Onyekwelu, 2020). Because of the inadequate utilization of sensor,communication and information technology in the oil industry in the country, Nigeria hasbecome the world’s second most expensive country to produce oil in 2024 (Oladipo, 2024).However, industry 4.0 which was first coined by German government at a fair in Hannover couldoffer a solution (Lu, 2017). It can be defined as “utilizing the power of the communicationtechnology and innovative inventions to boost the development of the manufacturing andprocessing industries”. The application of industry 4.0 in the manufacturing industry ischaracterized by cyber physical production system (CPPS) with the integration of heterogenousdata and knowledge whose aim is to improve effectiveness and efficiency in operations as wellas realizing the rapidly changing production requirement (Costa, et al 2020). According to(Oztemel and Guserv, 2020), industry 4.0 consist of the following base technologies: Big dataAnalysis, Internet of things, Cloud computing, Additive Manufacturing, Machine Learning,Autonomous Robotics and Block Chain (Frank et al, 2019; Oztemel and Gursev, 2020). Industry4.0 makes it easy for vertical integration allowing uninterrupted communication to the factoryassets beginning from the lowest level to the enterprise level. It represents a paradigm shift fromthe computer integrated manufacturing (CIM) which is an industry 3.0 concept to smart factory.Horizontal integration which is another evolutionary framework has been made possible byindustry 4.0, and it makes the actors in the supply chain to be interconnected, becoming a hybridof products and services (Nakayama, et al, 2020). Cloud-based monitoring of lease automatic custody transfer (LACT) unit parameters is a systemthat will develop visual sensors for emulation and transmission of data through visual nodes,demonstrate an algorithm or regression for transmitting the data to the cloud and configure a2
Thinkspeak interface for receiving the data at the cloud. These will enable stakeholders to viewLACT unit parameters in real time from their different locations and make decisions based ontheir observations. 1.2 Statement of the problem The cost of deploying government regulatory agencies, third party company representatives andother stakeholders of the oil and gas industry to offshore and onshore locations to monitorvariables used to determine quality and quantity of petroleum and petroleum product have directimpact on the cost of production of hydrocarbon and its products. It is imperative to state that,personnel whose jobs have no business with the actual production and processing of theseproducts should be kept far away from these hazardous products and the environments. However, several approaches have been implemented over the years to reduce the exposure tohazard for this class of personnel, and it includes the transmission (through wired transmitters) ofmeasurement values and controls through a flow computer and a distributed control system(DCS) to supervisory computers in the control room and another technology called “supervisorycontrol and data acquisition (SCADA)”. The control room, which is mostly built in the processarea within the production facility is a shelter for the electronic devices and the operators.Therefore, it does not eliminate the cost of transportation, feeding, accommodation, fieldallowance and inconvenience allowances of these non-operational personnel who must be on siteto monitor the measurement process. These allowances have direct impact to the cost ofproduction and indirect impact to the revenue of the government and other stakeholders.3
Nevertheless, the implementation of a cloud-based monitoring of Lease Automatic CustodyTransfer (LACT) unit parameters and other measurement systems will add value to the oil andgas industry because, the cost of deploying people who have no business with the production andprocessing of oil and gas products will be eliminated. This class of personnel (especially thegovernment regulatory agencies and other stakeholders) can monitor the measurement devices,its measurement values and behavioral performances with their computers, connected to a cloud-based system, from their offices at remote locations. They can also make recommendation formaintenance and calibration from the behavior of these devices, as may be required.1.3 Aim and objectives of the studyThe aim of this study is to develop a cloud-based monitoring of LACT-unit parameters. This willenable stakeholders and interested parties to remotely monitor custody transfer parameters in realtime.In order to achieve the aim, the research effort shall be geared towards the following objectives.1.To collect data from an existing LACT unit and analyze the data with a Microsoft Excelapplication.2.To develop a virtual sensor for emulation of the data and design a virtual sensor node fortransmitting the data.3.To develop an algorithm or regression for transmitting the data to the cloud and configurea ThingSpeak interface for receiving the data at the cloud.4.To simulate and implement the entire system for real time transmission of data.5.To validate the system.4
1.4 Justification or significant of the studyThis work “cloud-based monitoring of LACT-unit parameters was informed by the need toeliminate the excess expenditure incurred by flying numerous government personnel and otherstakeholder to offshore location to monitor LACT-unit parameters during custody transfer,allocation and fiscal metering of hydrocarbon liquid and gases. These personnel who are notdirectly involved in the production and processing of this hydrocarbon liquid and gases are alsoexposed to lots of hazards in the course of monitoring LACT-unit parameters.Cloud-based monitoring of Lease Automatic Custody Transfer (LACT) units should beconsidered critical for the oil and gas industry for several reasons. LACT units are used toaccurately measure and transfer oil from production facilities to pipelines or trucks, andmonitoring these units through cloud technology brings various benefits to the industry.1.Cloud-based monitoring allows LACT units to be tracked in real time so operators mayinstantly view their situation and state of performance. Very fast identification of any flaws orerrors in the measurement and transfer process is made possible by this real-time monitoring.2.Data Analytics: Cloud-based monitoring allows one to gather and examine a greatvolume of data from LACT facilities. Advanced analytics tools let operators learn a lot aboutoperational efficiencies, performance trends, and possible areas for development. This methodgrounded in statistics can enable individuals to run their companies more effectively and makewiser decisions.5
3.Remote Access: Cloud-based monitoring allows one to access LACT unit data and statusinformation from far distances. Operators and other interested parties can safely access themonitoring platform from anywhere equipped with an internet-connected gadget. Businesseswith more than one manufacturing site or workers who must monitor events from one locationwill find this function especially helpful.4.Predictive Maintenance: By looking at data from LACT units, cloud-based monitoringsystems can assist determine when maintenance is required or when equipment will fail. Thisproactive approach to maintenance can reduce downtime, prevent costly repairs from occurring,and extend the lifetime of LACT units—all of which enhance operational dependabilitygenerally. 5.Compliance and Reporting: Reporting on operational standards and measurementaccuracy in the oil and gas sector comes under tight guidelines and requirements. Byautomatically gathering and organizing data that has to be reported, tracking LACT units in thecloud can help to simplify compliance. This facilitates operators' meeting of their legalrequirements. 6.Integration with Other Systems: Other corporate systems including ERP, assetmanagement, and supply chains can be linked to monitoring in the cloud. Data sharing and cross-functional visibility are simplified by this integration, so enhancing the general coordination andefficiency of operations. 6
7.Security and Scalability: Strong security characteristics of cloud-based monitoring help tokeep sensitive data from LACT units safe. Because cloud platforms are scalable, operators canadd more monitoring tools as their companies expand or as new LACT units are installed. 8.Cost Efficiency: Comparatively to conventional on-site monitoring systems, cloud-basedmonitoring can offer financial savings. It does away with the need for large upfront hardware andinfrastructure investments, and many cloud services' pay-as---you-go approach helps companiesto efficiently manage costs and scale their monitoring capability. Monitoring LACT units in the cloud provides real-time visibility, data-driven insights, remoteaccess, predictive maintenance, compliance support, integration capability, safety, scalability,reduced costs. These advantages make it an essential tool for optimizing the measurement andcustody transfer processes in the oil and gas industry, ultimately contributing to improvedoperational performance and regulatory compliance.1.5 Scope of the studyThe scope of this study is centered on the actualization of the remote monitoring of the LACT unit parameters using sensor simulation and cloud-based technology. The study was performed with the data collected from an existing LACT-unit in Port Harcourt (Rumuekpe LACT-unit), analyzing the data with a Microsoft excel application, developing virtual sensors for emulation ofthe data and designing a virtual sensor node for transmitting the data, developing an algorithm for transmitting the data to the cloud. It also demonstrated, configuring a Thinkspeak interface 7
for receiving the data at the cloud, simulating and implementing the entire system for real time transmission of data and finally validating the system.CHAPTER TWOLITERATURE REVIEW2.1 Conceptual FrameworkLease Automatic Custody Transfer (LACT) units are essential in the oil and gas sector, acting as Lease Automatic Custody Transfer (LACT) units are essential in the oil and gas sector, acting asthe benchmark for the precise measurement and transfer of hydrocarbons between entities. Theseunits are crucial in ensuring that the quantities and quality of oil and gas exchanged aremeticulously documented, thereby becoming vital for financial dealings, adherence toregulations, and overall operational effectiveness (Naslednikov and Petrov, 2022). LACT unitsare indispensable for accurate measurement, regulatory compliance, operational efficiency, andquality control in the oil and gas industry. However, they face several operational challenges.These challenges centers on data accuracy, connectivity, security, integration, compliance,maintenance, cost, and human factors. is Overcoming these challenges requires the integration ofadvanced technology such as cloud monitoring to ensure the effective and reliable operation ofLACT units.2.2 Historical evolutions in oil and gas measuring facilities 8
According to (Petroleum Extension, 2022) history records that the first commercial oilproduction in the United States was gauged using a simple yet practical method. Oil was storedin wooden stave tanks, each capable of holding about 8 barrels of oil. These tanks, originallydesigned for storing fish oil, were repurposed for the burgeoning oil industry. To measure thevolume of oil in these tanks, early oil producers used a pine slat marked with feet, inches, andfractions of inches. This rudimentary tool allowed them to gauge the depth of the oil and thusestimate its volume.As the oil industry expanded and technology advanced, the methods for measuring oil alsoevolved. By the turn of the 20th century, steel tapes had become the standard tool for tankgauging. These tapes offered greater accuracy and durability compared to the wooden slats. Theycould withstand harsher conditions and provided more precise measurements, which wereessential as the scale of oil production increased.However, the wooden stave tanks themselves had significant limitations. They required periodicmaintenance, specifically hoop drives, to prevent leakage. Hoop drives involved tightening themetal bands (hoops) that held the wooden staves together, a labor-intensive process necessary tomaintain the integrity of the tanks. Recognizing the inefficiencies and high maintenance costsassociated with wooden tanks, the industry began transitioning to steel tanks. Steel tanks weremore efficient, more durable, and required less maintenance. (Chaves & Engebretsen 2022).They were less prone to leakage and could better withstand the environmental conditions typicalof oil production sites.Despite the advancements in technology, the practice of manual tank gauging has persisted.Today, most states and the federal government still require manual gauging and testing for9
measuring crude oil removed from producing properties. This method, while traditional, remainsreliable and provides a straightforward way to verify oil volumes for regulatory and accountingpurposes. The continued use of manual gauging reflects its effectiveness and the industry'scommitment to maintaining accurate measurement standards. However, the LACT unit wasintroduced in the Figure 1. Wooden Stave production tank (Petroleum Extension, 2022)10
Figure 2.0 LACT unit (Kimray Inc, 2021)contemporary time to improve precision in the measurement of oil and gas products duringcustody transfer.The figure 2 is a lease automatic custody transfer (LACT) unit of an oil and gas facility. Thefunction of this LACT unit is to accurately measure and sample the amount of crude oil whichpasses through it. Every year, more lease tanks are being replaced by LACT units in figure 2. Buthow is this possible since state and federal governments still require, in many cases, manual tankgauging. (Chaves & Engebretsen 2022). The honest answer will be obtained after takingretrospection of the evolutions of crude oil measuring devices. Positive displacement meters had been effectively used for several years to continuously measurefinished petroleum products. The oil industry recognized that applying this technology to11
measure crude oil directly from leases could result in substantial cost savings (Kimray Inc,2021). This potential drove producers, gatherers, and meter manufacturers to collaborate ondeveloping meters robust enough to handle the challenging conditions of crude oil service. Thesejoint efforts were fruitful, leading to the installation of the first Lease Automatic CustodyTransfer (LACT) unit in 1948 in the Antelope Field, Clay County, Texas, USA.However, a significant hurdle had to be overcome. Federal and state regulations at the timemandated manual tank gauging and testing for measuring crude oil removed from producingproperties. This government regulation ensured accurate measurement and inspection of oilvolumes, so highlighting the reliance of the sector on conventional manual techniques. People inthe business began searching for means to get around these regulations as soon as the first LACTunit operational. They argued a strong case for regulatory flexibility since LACT units could bejust as accurate as measuring and sampling by hand.These arguments convinced authorities, who subsequently made exceptions allowing LACTunits to be extensively applied. (Petrological Extension, 2022). This marked the beginning of amajor transformation sometimes known as the LACT boom in the course of measuring oil.LACT units could only be used if it was assured they would be equally accurate and dependableas hand measurement and sample collecting. Maintaining the integrity of operations involvingcustody transfers depends much on this criterion. Making sure LACT units operate as precisely and consistently as they claim to be is quite vital.Maintaining this performance criterion falls under the responsibility of the persons running andsupervising these divisions. Maintaining the confidence of regulatory authorities and industryplayers in this technology depends on LACT units being correctly maintained and operated upon.12
This obligation ensures that accurate and reliable measurements are not sacrificed in favor of thebenefits of using LACT units, which include saving money and improving the runningefficiency.2.3 Factors affecting custody transfer measurement via the LACT unitWithin the purview of custody transfer in the crude oil industry, ensuring the accuratemeasurement of quantity and quality is critical. Custody transfer refers to the point at which theownership of the crude oil changes hands, and accurate measurement at this juncture ensures fairand transparent transactions. (Kumar & Karnawat, 2021) The primary factors influencing thesemeasurements are:1Temperature:The amount of crude oil present is much influenced by temperature. Thecrude oil expands with increasing temperature, so increasing the volume. By contrast, a drop intemperature causes objects to shrink and their volume to drop. To ensure accurate volumecalculations, crude oil volumes are typically measured at a standardized temperature, often 60°F(15.6°C) in the United States. Temperature compensation or correction factors are applied toaccount for the expansion or contraction of crude oil due to temperature changes.2API gravity:Developed by the American Petroleum Institute, measures how heavy orlight a petroleum liquid is compared to water. The API gravity scale is logarithmic, meaningeach degree corresponds to a specific density range (Petroleum Extension, 2022). The formula tocalculate API gravity is by equation 2.1. API Gravity=141.5SpecificGravity at600F−131.52.113
Crude oil is classified based on API gravity into light, medium, heavy, and extra heavy crudeoils. Light crude oil has an API gravity greater than 31.1°, characterized by low density, lowviscosity, low specific gravity, and free flow at room temperature. It contains a high proportionof light hydrocarbon fractions and generally has low wax content. Light crude oil is highlyvalued because it yields a higher percentage of gasoline and diesel fuel, which are in highdemand. Medium crude oil has an API gravity between 22.3° and 31.1°.The crude oil is heavy in case the API gravity is less than 22.3°. It is thicker and denser; it doesnot flow readily. With an API gravity less than 10°, extra heavy crude oil is rather dense andthick. Usually it must be heated or diluted to get it flowing through pipelines. Because they costmore to process and generate fewer useful products, heavy and extra heavy crude oils are lessvaluable than light crude. More complex techniques are required to improve them, and pollutantsare frequently used, so affecting the surroundings more broadly. On commodity markets, thesevariations show in the price of crude oil. Light crude oil costs more than heavy crude oil since itgenerates less expensive refining costs and more valuable products. Because the refiningtechniques required to separate its molecules are more complex and expensive, heavy crude oilprices less. Refineries find light crude more appealing since it requires less energy and lessdifficult steps to produce more valuable goods with less waste. To break down the biggerhydrocarbon molecules, heavy crude oil requires more aggressive refining techniques includingcoking and cracking, though. Usually this results in more waste and byproducts. Based on WestTexas Intermediate (WTI), light and sweet with an API gravity of roughly 40° and a sulfurcontent of roughly 0.3%, US crude oil is priced. Correcting the API gravity will help onedetermine the value of crude oil and the most suitable processing techniques. 14
A sample is taken from the production stream in this process to fairly depict the given volume.The sample has to be homogeneous and originate from a point in the pipeline displaying thewhole internal diameter cross-section. This maintains the flow from being distorted by separatedphases or stratified flow. While laminar flow might cause stratification, conditions in the pipeline—like turbulent flow—can help ensure that the sample is more homogeneous. Correctcalibration and maintenance of the equipment are absolutely crucial to acquire accurate samples.Certain techniques, such as proportional sampling—which bases a sample on flow rate—canassist to ensure sample representability. If one understands and precisely measures API gravity, one can better determine the value ofcrude oil, streamline refining operations, and ensure that transactions during custody transfer arefair and clear. 3. Basic Sediment and Water Content:For those working in the oil sector, basic sediment andwater, or BS&W, is a highly important metric of crude oil quality. One finds BS&W by liquidsample from the production stream. Expressing it as a volume percentage of the productionstream, it comprises free water, sediment, and emulsion (John and Igimoh, 2017). Correctmeasurement of crude oil is crucial since these contaminants influence its processing and saleconditions.ABS&W probes are instruments for determining the degree of water entrained in petroleumproducts. Working on the theory that water is more conductive than crude oil changes thecapacitive reactance of the BS&W probe, because the dielectric constant of crude oil varies withwater content in it. Most BS&W probes apply sub-megahertz, capacitance, energy absorption, or15
microwave technology. These all examine crude oil's dielectric constants in order to observe anychanges in water content. Usually the LACT (Lease Automatic Custody Transfer) unit features a BS&W probe. Itsobjective is to automatically transfer crude oil from a lease site to a pipeline or storage facility.These probes are usually configured to detect water levels between 0 and 3 percent most of thetimes. Depending on the range of the probe and its application, BS&W probes can have accuracyanywhere from 0.05% to 0.25%. The BS&W content can be monitored continuously at this levelof accuracy, so providing a good indication of whether the oil can be sold or has more than theagreeduponBS&Wcontent.Important component of the LACT unit, the BS&W probe operates with the oil divert valvesystem (Zhifeng, 2019). The divert valve, depending on the circumstances, is typically a three-way valve that lets the oil flow either normally, back to the storage vessel, to a facility that treatswet oil, or totally stopped. This arrangement guarantees that only oil that satisfies quality criteriais transported, and oil with more BS&W than what is permitted is sent elsewhere to be handledfurther.Usually the probe is connected to a BS&W monitor. The monitor converts the probe's readingsinto real-time data regarding the BS&W content. Maintaining the quality of the crude oil while itis being transported and ensuring that industry standards and contractual requirements aresatisfied depend on this continuous observing. By locating and redirecting oil with a high BS&Wcontent, the system aids to stop the flow of bad oil. This guards the interests of the buyer and theseller. 16
For several reasons, it is vital to precisely measure and monitor BS&W. When there is a lot ofBS&W in the water, pipelines and refineries can find running difficulties. Higher maintenancecosts and maybe downtime follow from this. It can also reduce the efficiency of refiningtechniques, so producing less worthwhile goods. Additionally, high water content in crude oilcan cause corrosion and other issues in storage tanks and pipelines. Therefore, maintaining lowBS&W content is crucial for ensuring the smooth operation of the oil production and refiningprocess.17
Figure 2.1. A LACT unit and its components (Kimray Inc, 2021)Fig. 2.2 BS and W (Kimray Inc, 2021)2.4 Expounding Key Component of a LACT uniti.The oil pump: The oil from the storage tank on the left side of figure 2.1 is beingdrawn by a charge pump labelled as 1. This oil then passes through a vertical loopwhere the sampler extracts a representative stream sample and stores it in a suitablecontainer (Kimray Inc, 2021). An air eliminator is usually located at the high point instream, and it may contain a strainer as well. A pump, is included between the oiltank and the lack unit. Charge pumps should provide a steady flow through thesystem and are usually centrifugal or rotary positive displacement types. Immediatelydownstream from the pump, we usually find the automatic sampler probe installed ina vertical run of pipe.18
ii.The BS and W (Basic Sediment and Water): This monitor also picks up a signal fromthe vertical loop to detect bad oil and actuate a three-way diverting valve to send theoil back to the treating system. A strainer is located just ahead of the meter if one isnot installed with the air eliminator. In most cases, the unit is equipped with a set stopdevice in the control panel to prevent overrunning allowable (Kimray Inc, 2021). Athermometer or thermowell and pressure gauge are located past the meter just aheadof the prover valve connections. iii.Air Eliminator:The oil passes through an air eliminator, a device designed to removeany gas or air present in the pipeline while ensuring that the liquid does not escape. Ifthis air or gas is not eliminated, it can lead to inaccurate measurements by the meter.Removing trapped air or vapor from oil is crucial for two main reasons. Firstly,meters cannot differentiate between liquid and vapor, so the presence of air or vaporcan result Fig 2.3 Air Eliminator (Petroleum Extension, 2022)19
Fig 2.4 Inlet static mixer (Kimray Inc, 2021)Figure 2.5 Coriolis Flow meter (Petroleum Extension, 2022)in measurement errors. Secondly, large bubbles or slugs of air and vapor can damage the meter.The air eliminator addresses these issues by providing a space where oil can collect as it movesthrough the pipeline, causing the flow to slow down. This slowdown helps air and vapor separatefrom the oil. Within the air eliminator, a float valve is installed at the top. As air and vaporaccumulate, they displace the oil, causing the oil level and the float to drop. When the floatreaches a certain level, a vent valve opens, allowing the trapped air and vapor to escape. Oncethe air and vapor have been released, the oil level rises again, and the float closes the vent valve.20
Some air eliminators also have a built-in strainer to filter out debris. An essential aspect of aireliminators is that the exterior vent line valve must remain open for the device to functioncorrectly. If this valve is closed, the air eliminator cannot operate. Therefore, gatherers ofteninsist that this valve be sealed open to ensure proper functioning. This setup is part of the LACTunit meter system.iv.Inlet Static Mixer: An inlet static mixer plays a crucial role in ensuring accurate volumemeasurements by thoroughly emulsifying the liquid. Emulsification involves mixing the variouscomponents of the liquid so that they form a homogeneous mixture (Petroleum Extension, 2022).This process is essential because crude oil and other fluids often consist of multiple phases, suchas oil, water, and gas. If these phases are not uniformly mixed, measurement inaccuracies canoccur. When fluid flows through a straight pipe, natural separation tends to happen due todifferences in density and viscosity among the phases. Heavier components, like water, maysettle at the bottom of the pipe, while lighter components, like oil and gas, may rise to the top.This stratification can lead to measurement errors because some types of meters might only readone phase of the fluid instead of the entire mixture. For example, a meter could measure just theoil phase and ignore the water and gas phases, leading to an inaccurate representation of the totalfluid volume. The static mixer mitigates this issue by creating turbulence in the flow, effectively breaking upthe different phases and dispersing them evenly throughout the pipeline. This ensures that whenthe fluid reaches the meter, it is a well-mixed emulsion rather than a stratified flow. As a result,the meter can accurately measure the total volume of the mixed fluid, including all its phases.The design of a static mixer typically involves a series of stationary baffles or elements placedinside the pipeline. As the fluid flows through these elements, it undergoes repeated splitting and21
recombining, which enhances the mixing process. This design ensures minimal pressure dropand energy loss while maximizing the mixing efficiency.Accurate volume measurement is critical for several reasons. It ensures precise accounting andbilling, maintains operational efficiency, and meets regulatory compliance. Inaccuratemeasurements can lead to significant financial discrepancies, disputes between producers andbuyers, and potential penalties from regulatory bodies.v.Three-way diverter valve: The BS&W (Basic Sediment and Water) monitor is a crucialcomponent in oil processing systems, ensuring that oil meets quality standards before furtherhandling or processing. This monitor works in conjunction with a 3-way valve to appropriatelydirect the flow of oil based on the levels of sediment and water detected. (Petroleum Extension2022)When the BS&W monitor detects that the levels of sediment and water in the oil are too high, thediverter valve will reroute the oil to a designated "bad oil" tank. This tank allows the oil toundergo natural separation, where gravity helps the heavier water and sediment settle out of theoil. Once this separation occurs, the cleaner oil can be re-routed back to the LACT (LeaseAutomatic Custody Transfer) unit for further processing. This ensures that only oil meeting therequired quality standards is processed and measured, preventing contamination and potentialdamage to downstream equipment.In some systems, bypass lines are included to handle oil with high BS&W content moreefficiently. These bypass lines can direct the oil back to the beginning of the separation process,ensuring it goes through the necessary steps to remove excess water and sediment. Alternatively,the oil can be sent to a stand-alone heated vessel designed to expedite the removal of BS&W22
(Petroleum Extension, 2022). Heating the oil reduces its viscosity, facilitating the separation ofsediment and water from the oil.On the other hand, if the BS&W monitor determines that the levels of sediment and water arewithin acceptable limits, the 3-way diverter valve will open to send the oil directly to a flowmeter. The flow meter then measures the volume of the oil accurately. This step is critical forensuring precise accounting and maintaining the integrity of custody transfer operations.Accurate volume measurement is essential for financial transactions, regulatory compliance, andoperational efficiency.vi.Coriolis Flowmeter:The selection of a meter type for measuring flow rate is primarilybased on the maximum mass and volumetric flow rate expected in a given application. (Priyanka,Maheswari, & Thangavel, 2016). At this particular location, a Coriolis meter is being utilizeddue to its ability to accurately measure mass flow rates in a wide range of conditions. A Coriolis meter operates on the principle of motion mechanics to measure the mass flow rate ofthe process fluid. The meter is designed with two parallel tubes, or coils, through which the fluidpasses. These tubes are oscillated by a driving mechanism in opposite directions. As the fluidflows through the oscillating tubes, it experiences Coriolis forces that cause the tubes to twist ordeform in a specific way.This twisting motion generates voltage within the coils, which can be detected and measured.The oscillation of the tubes creates sine waves that are representative of the movement of thetubes. The key to the Coriolis meter's operation is the time delay between the oscillations of thetwo tubes, also known as the phase shift. This time delay is directly proportional to the massflow rate of the fluid passing through the tubes. That is, as the mass flow rate increases the timeinterval between the oscillations gets longer.23
The Coriolis meter has several advantages when gauging mass flow rates. First, it gauges themass flow straight-forwardly, which is crucial in many industrial operations where mass—notvolume—is the most crucial consideration. Second, it is quite accurate and dependable; itprovides exact readings even in cases of changing fluid densities, viscosities, and compositions—a challenging situation. Useful information for managing and monitoring the process is alsothe ability of Coriolis meters to determine the density of the fluid and its temperature. Because of its construction and operation, the Coriolis meter can be applied for numerousdifferent purposes. It can be applied with highly thick fluids, flows with multiple phases, andfluids including gases or solids. Because it can operate in a range of conditions and still beaccurate, it is popular in many disciplines including oil and gas, chemical processing, and foodand beverage manufacture. vii.Block and Bleed Valves/ Proving Connections: Located right after the flow meter, blockand bleed valves as well as proving connections are crucial for maintaining good shape of themetering system and ensuring accuracy. Making sure the flow measurements are accurate andconsistent depends on these components, thus they are rather crucial. Businesses runningsmoothly, making money, following regulations in sectors including oil and gas, chemicalprocessing, and others depend on these measurements.Block and bleed valves let you safely split pipeline sections and release pressure from thedivided component. Under this arrangement, the bleed valve lets any fluid still in the systemescape safely while the block valve stops fluid flow. Maintenance and calibration activitiesdepend much on this set-up since it ensures that these tasks can be completed without stoppingthe entire operation or endangering anyone. 24
Near these valves, the proving connections let you momentarily enter a proving meter. A provingmeter is a highly accurate machine designed to ensure that the main flow meter is likewiseprecise. (Petroleum Extension, 2022) Flow measurement systems rely heavily on proving sincethey allow one to compare the readings from the flow meter under use with a known standardprovided by the proving meter. By helping to identify any issues or variations in the flow meter'sperformance, this comparison guarantees that the readings remain within the required range ofaccuracy.The block valve is turned off to demonstrate something—that fluid won't pass through the mainmeter. The flow is then shifted to pass the proving meter after the proving connections areestablished to that meter. Over a predetermined period of time or flow, one compares the readingof the main meter with the proving meter. If the readings fall within a reasonable range, oneassumes that the main meter is accurate. Should variations be discovered, the primary meter isaltered to correct any mistakes found. Maintaining good shape and ensuring accuracy of flow meters depend critically on regularproving of them. It guarantees that, even with changes in the environment, wear and tear, andfluid properties, the flow meter maintains accurate readings across time. It is especiallyimportant to prove things when you are transferring custody, because the right measurement offluid volumes has a direct effect on financial transactions and following the rules set by contractsandregulations.Furthermore simpler maintenance and problem fixing for the metering system in a safe andefficient manner come from the block and bleed valves. Separating the flow meter and allowingany pressure out lets technicians safely check, clean, or repair the meter and its parts. Thisfeature of isolation cuts down on downtime and accidents, making operations safer and more25
efficientoverall.viii Back Pressure Valve:A Lease Automatic Custody Transfer (LACT) unit's back pressurevalve is crucial since it guarantees correct measurement and helps to maintain system pressureconstant. Gosavi (2017), Gawde, and Gosavi. Comprising a back pressure valve, the LACT unitlets oil pass through it. Its purpose is to maintain a given system pressure. The LACT unitdepends on maintaining this pressure to operate as it is. Typically, a spring-loaded back pressurevalve is used in this context due to its simplicity and reliability. The spring-loaded mechanismoperates devoid of outside supply gas or a power source. This is thus a strong and autonomousapproach to regulate the pressure. The valve consists of a spring that exerts a force on a valveseat, maintaining it in a closed position until the upstream pressure reaches a certain threshold. The oil's force is more than that of the spring when the pressure of the oil passing through thesystem exceeds this allowed limit. This lets some oil pass through by somewhat opening thevalve. By removing the additional pressure, this action helps to maintain the pressure upstreamof the valve stable. Maintaining this back pressure is rather crucial for many different reasons. It guarantees first thatthe LACT unit's internal flow meter operates as it should. Most flow meters are calibrated toprecisely within specified ranges pressure measurement capability. Any variation from thesepressure ranges might cause mass flow or volume measurements to be erroneous. The backpressure valve guarantees correct flow meter readings by helping to maintain constant pressure.26
Figure 2.6 Block and Bleed Valves (Petroleum Extension 2022)Figure 2.7 Back pressure valve highlighted in red (Kimray Inc. (2021)27
For custody transfers, where accurate measurements of the oil being transferred are required forboth legal and financial reasons, this is absolutely vital. Secondly, the back pressure valve maintains stability of the pressure, so preventing damage ofthe equipment further downstream from pressure fluctuations. Quick changes in pressure canstrain valves, meters, and other components, leading to early wear-on and breakdown thatincreases maintenance costs. By regulating and maintaining a constant pressure, the backpressure valve helps the LACT system run longer and more dependably. Effective early stage processing of oil, gas, and water requires also constant back pressure toeffectively separate them. Correct separation is necessary to guarantee the right quality andpurity of the oil under movement and measurement. Changing pressures can throw off theseparation process, thus the oil might not be totally separated and could include gas and water.This may result in less accurate readings and less good oil movement (Kimray Inc., 2021). Spring-loaded back pressure valves are ideal in demanding or remote locations where gassupplies or outside power sources could not be accessible or consistent due to their construction.They require less maintenance and are less prone to break down since they work on their ownand are mechanically simple. In places like factories and oil fields where maintaining constantoperation is quite vital, this dependability is quite helpful. viii.Check valve:Many key components of a Lease Automatic Custody Transfer (LACT) unitcooperate to prevent metered fluid from running backwards from the pipeline into the LACTunit. Among especially crucial components is the check valve. Maintaining the integrity of themeasuring process and ensuring accurate and dependable oil transfer depend on this very vitalability.28
A check valve's job is to stop fluid from running in one direction while allowing it flow inanother. One-way flow control is made possible by a basic but powerful mechanism. 2022Chaves and Engebretsen. Usually opening when fluid flows in the correct direction, a valveconsists of a part that can move—that of a disc, ball, or poppet. The part that can move pushesagainst the valve seat when fluid tries to flow backwards, sealing the valve and stopping anybackflow.The check valve in a LACT unit is positioned deliberately further down the line from the flowmeter. The oil keeps flowing through the pipeline to its ultimate destination as soon as the flowmeter reaches the proper reading. Following the flow meter, the check valve guarantees that theoil cannot return into the LACT unit. Stopping the backflow is rather crucial for several reasons. It first guarantees the accuracy and dependability of the measuring process. Should backflowoccur, it could distort the flow meter readings since it would allow fluid already measured to mixwith fluid not yet measured. This would result in incorrect volume calculations, which mightlead to arguments and financial difficulties during custody change. Accurate measurement isabsolutely essential for following the guidelines and billing. Making sure measurements areaccurate depends on the check valve in great part. The check valve's second duty is to prevent backflow from compromising the LACT unit or itscomponents. Backward flow of fluids can cause mechanical stress on the equipment and pressuresurges that damage it and result in expensive repairs or downtime. By preventing backflow, thecheck valve helps the LACT unit and associated components last and be durable. At last, the check valve keeps the measured oil free from contaminants and of good quality.Backflow can bring fluids or contaminants already separated back into the LACT unit, so29
lessening the purity of the oil. Leach, not too long ago. This contamination can reduce thegeneral quality of the oil being transported and complicate future accurate measurement efforts.The check valve guarantees that the oil stays pure and of the same quality as it passes through thepipeline.Well-designed and composed of the appropriate materials will help check valves to be mostdependable and effective. Usually composed of robust materials able to withstand the demandingworking conditions including high pressure, corrosive fluids, and changing temperatures, checkvalves used in oil and gas are The valve will operate effectively and consistently for a longperiod with minimal maintenance depending on the used materials and design technique. 2.5 How the LACT unit work Using LACT (Lease Automatic Custody Transfer) units to precisely measure and move crude oilfrom production facilities to pipelines or other modes of transportation is quite difficult. Thoughthey vary somewhat, different kinds of LACT units follow the same overall procedures to ensurethat the crude oil is moved accurately and consistently (Khalil, Khomonenko, and Matushko,2022).Usually connected to an open feedline and a stock tank—where the crude oil is kept before it istransferred—the LACT unit Starting with the level controller in the stock tank monitoring the oillevel, the process moves When the crude oil level in the stock tank reaches a predeterminedpoint, the level controller turns on. The activating signals the LACT unit to turn on, so initiatingthe transaction. The LACT unit then begins to track and measure the crude oil across the system. As the crude oil is relocated, the level in the stock tank gradually declines. When the oil levelfalls to a specific level, the level controller signals the LACT unit to turn off. The deal is over30
here. This automated system guarantees that the LACT unit operates only when necessary, soimproving efficiency and reducing the possibility of underflows or overflows. The infrastructure and logistics requirements of the site determine how LACT units are arrangedon the field. LACT units are generally directly connected to a main or gathering pipeline. Thisfacilitates the movement of crude oil from the producing site to the transportation system.Different LACT setups are used to address the issues resulting from limited or nonexistentpipeline access in remote locations, though. Instead, crude oil can be measured and transported using the Truck LACT unit as it is loaded intotanker trucks. This arrangement allows crude oil to be transported from outlying productionfacilities to pipelines or refineries. The same is true of Rail LACT units, designed to load crudeoil into railroad tankers. These rail LACT units enable crude oil to be rapidly and effectivelytransported by train to designated sites, such as pipeline junctions or refineries. Working in the same basic principles as conventional LACT units coupled to pipelines, truck andrail LACT units Their careful measurement of the crude oil being moved maintains the integrityof the custody transfer process. In remote areas, these mobile LACT units are quite crucial sincethey enable flexible and dependable movement of crude oil to processing plants or into the maintransportation system. Whether fixed or mobile, LACT units' design and functionality rely onexact control and measurement systems. Many times, these devices include flow meters, backpressure valves, air eliminators, and sampling systems that enable a precise estimate of the crudeoil volume and quality being transferred. Different forms of LACT units essentially function in rather different ways, but they all automatea process under control by the stock tank's oil level.The units link to a stock tank and an open31
feedline. To ensure a seamless transfer, they turn on and off depending on set oil levels. LACTunits can be coupled to either gathering or main pipelines. Truck and Rail LACT units are usedto measure and transport crude oil to refineries or pipelines in outlying areas. These adaptableand accurate systems are required to ensure that the custody transfer of crude oil is carried outcorrectly in a spectrum of logistical and infrastructure conditions (Khalil, Khomonenko, andMatushko,2020).2.6 Importance and Applications of the LACT unit in the Oil and Gas IndustryIn the oil and gas industry, the LACT (Lease Automatic Custody Transfer) unit is rather crucial.It precisely moves crude oil from production sites to facilities for processing and transportation.LACT units are crucial since they guarantee measured and verified exact oil transfer amounts.For business transactions, rule following, and seamless operation running, this is absolutely vital.Mostly used to measure and transfer crude oil from wells producing oil to pipelines are LACTunits. By offering constant and accurate measurement, LACT units help resolve differences onthe quantity of oil delivered between oil producers, transporters, and buyers. Sophisticated flowmeters, sampling systems, and automated controls closely record and check every transaction toreach this degree of accuracy. Apart from changing ownership, LACT units are quite crucial for maintaining the quality of themoved oil. Parts like air eliminators and sediment and water monitors help to guarantee that theoil satisfies quality criteria. LACT units remove entrained air and separate water and sediment,so maintaining the oil flow to pipelines and refineries cleanliness. This keeps contamination of32
the oil free. (Gosavi et al., 2017) This quality control is essential to ensure the integrity of thesubsequent processing and refining operations. LACT units are flexible thus they can be applied in a variety of operational environments. LACTunits simplify the crude oil movement from storage tanks to pipelines when direct access topipelines from a field is possible. Flexible means of transporting crude oil to locations withoutpipelines are vehicle-mounted LACT systems, such as Truck and Rail LACT systems. Thesemobile units weigh oil and load it into railroad or tankers for a ship. No matter where it is, the oilis then precisely and effectively delivered to refineries or pipeline junctions.LACT units also significantly help operations to be more effective. By automating the measuringand transfer processes, they reduce the necessity for human labor. This raises general efficiencyand reduces the possibility of mistakes. In automation, level controllers turn on and off the units depending on the storage tank oil levels.This guarantees correct and timely transfer of the materials. This reduces the possibility of spillsandoverflows,soimprovingaccuracyandsafetyineverything.Furthermore quite helpful for monitoring and enhancing production processes is the data LACTunits generate during the transfer process. Keeping thorough records of oil volumes, flow rates,and quality criteria helps operators to learn a lot about the performance of their productionsystems. This data enables one to identify trends, spot anomalies, and make wise decisions onmaintenance schedules and manufacturing plans, so optimizing oil and gas operations generally. Regarding rule-following, LACT units are quite crucial for ensuring government regulations andindustry standards are complied with. Oil volumes have to be measured and recorded accuratelyin compliance. LACT units equip you with the means to satisfy these requirements. Leach, B.33
(nd.). Their precise measuring abilities enable operators to keep out of trouble and ensure theyfollow through on their legal and contractual obligations, so maintaining the integrity of oil andgas operations and ensuring long-term viability of these activities. In the oil and gas sector, the LACT units are rather crucial since they ensure proper andconsistent custody transfer of crude oil is carried out. They facilitate the flow of oil frommanufacturing sites to pipelines and other means of transportation. They also maintain thequality of the transferred oil, streamline operations by automating chores, and provide valuabledata for monitoring and enhancement of the processes. Long-term success of systems generatingand transporting oil and gas depends on LACT units also ensuring adherence to rules. 2018: theyearLawan,Oduoza,andBuckley2.7 Industrial Standards and regulatory requirement of the LACT unitThe LACT unit has to satisfy rigorous industry standards and government regulations toguarantee accuracy, dependability, and compliance in the oil and gas sector. These criteria arerequired to maintain the integrity of custody transfer activities, which rely on preciselymeasuring and verifying the crude oil moving volumes. The LACT unit has to abide byguidelines established by organizations such as the American Petroleum Institute (API). In 2006Abdelgawad, Lewis, Elgamel, Issa, Tzeng, and Bayoumi penned it. The API specifies guidelinesfor how LACT units should be constructed, installed, and used to guarantee that oilmeasurements are consistently accurate and correct. These guidelines address many aspects ofthe operation of a LACT unit, including flow meters used, calibration techniques, andmaintenance policies. 34
Following API guidelines guarantees that the LACT unit satisfies industry accuracy andconsistency criteria as well as operates as it should. Guidelines regarding the use of LACT unitsalso exist both at the federal and state levels. Strict guidelines regarding the measurement andreporting of crude oil presence exist among the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) andstate departments of environmental quality. The regulations are supposed to safeguard theenvironment, stop fraud, and guarantee that accurate records of oil output and transfer are keptof.A very crucial regulatory need is that the LACT unit be regularly proved and preciselycalibrated.To ensure the LACT unit produces accurate readings, its measuring system is changed duringcalibration. During proving to ensure they are accurate, the LACT unit's measurements arematched to those of a standard reference metre. To maintain the LACT unit's accuracy over time,regulatory agencies mandate that it be routinely calibrated and proven. Should these guidelinesbe broken, the operator might suffer fines, penalties, and even damage credibility. Another crucial regulatory issue is ensuring recorded and shared measurement data. LACT unitsmust record meticulously the quantity of oil transferred, the flow rate, and the quality standards.This data has to be accurately entered and forwarded to regulatory authorities to guarantee thatlegal criteria are fulfilled. Correct documentation guarantees that the custody transfer process isopen and that everyone has access to accurate information. Furthermore influencing LACT unit operation are environmental laws. LACT units have to havesafety elements like systems that locate leaks and means of emergency shutdown if we are tofollow the guidelines and prevent oil spills and leaks. These safety precautions guarantee the35
LACT unit operates in a responsible and safe manner and help reduce the risk of environmentalpollution.The guidelines and policies clearly outline the particular actions to establish and preserve LACTunits. These guidelines guarantee that the units are routinely serviced and set up properly so as toprevent breakdown and ensure always accurate measurements. Government guidelines state thatregular maintenance plans help identify and address possible issues before they lead to errors orequipment breakdowns (Wang, K. 2022). LACT units have contractual obligations in addition to industry standards and governmentregulations. Contracts between those who produce, distribute, and purchase oil sometimesspecify LACT units must satisfy specific accuracy and dependability criteria. Some of theseagreements might specify that the LACT unit must be routinely calibrated, tested, andmaintained to ensure it remains in line with the stated criteria. Government officials also pay great attention to including modern technologies into LACTfacilities. New technologies meant to increase the accuracy and efficiency of LACT units mustbe reviewed over and approved by regulatory agencies This serves to ensure they satisfy presentcriteria and requirements. This process guarantees smart use of advancements in LACT unittechnology such that they do not compromise the dependability or accuracy of custody transferoperations.Operators of LACT units in the oil and gas sector have to abide by a wide spectrum of industrystandards and government regulations, thus they should keep in mind. These guidelines andpolicies ensure that LACT units follow laws and contracts, operate in a safe and responsiblemanner, and provide accurate and dependable readings. Successful and long-term running of36
LACT units depends on following these guidelines. They guard everyone's rights and ensureequitable procedures for custody transfer. 2.8 Traditional Monitoring Methods of the LACT UnitsIn conventional monitoring systems, the parameters of a LACT unit are typically under hand orpartially automated control. Not continuous, real-time monitoring and automated control systemsthat are increasingly common in modern environments, traditional ways of keeping an eye onLACT units depend on operators and regular checks (Petroleum Extension, 2022). These aresome salient features of the previous methods of surveillance. 2.8.1 Wired Monitoring SystemsWired monitoring systems in LACT units link several sensors, instruments, and control units byphysical cables. These systems guarantee that LACT units operate correctly and precisely byenabling the continuous collecting, sending, and data analysis needed.2.8.2 Roles of wired monitoring system in LACT units1. Real-Time Data Acquisition: Real-time data sent by sensors and instruments to wired systemslets them be watched over and immediately responded to.2. Improved Accuracy: Wired connections reduce signal interference and data loss, hencemeasurements are more accurate.3. Enhanced Control: These systems give you more control over how the LACT unit operates byallowing parts to communicate with one another easily.37
2.8.3 Primary components of wired monitoring systems in LACT units1. Sensors and Transducers: Check several variables including temperature, flow rate, pressure,and BS&W content. Common forms of sensors are flow metres, pressure transducers andtemperature sensors.2.Control Units and Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs): The system's brains, whichabsorb data from sensors, process it and execute control commands. PLCs are dependable andversatile, thus people use them in industrial environments rather often.3. Data Acquisition Systems (DAS): Get analogues from sensors, then convert them into digitalsignals for processing and analysis. DAS units often include analog-to- digital converters(ADCs) and multiplexers.4. Communication Cables: Between sensors, control units, and DAS, there are physical cables delivering data. Among these cables are fibre optics, twisted pair cables, and coaxial cables.5. Power Supply Units: Give other components, controllers, and sensors the power they need.Reliable power sources are essential to maintain constant operations.2.8.4 Infrastructure that helps wired monitoring systems work in LACT units1. Junction Boxes: They serve as centres where several sensor cables converge to the main communication cables.2. Grounding Systems: Essential for maintaining a free from electrical interference and ensuring the safety of the wired system is.38
3. Conduits and Cable Trays: Maintaining the power and communication cables in order will help to guarantee a neat and safe installation.2.8.5 Function of Wired Monitoring Systems in LACT Units1. Real-Time Data Acquisition: Real-time data sent by sensors and instruments lets wiredsystems be watched over and responded to immediately. Visit Chaves and Engebretsen (2022). 2. Improved Accuracy: Wired connections reduce signal interference and data loss, hencemeasurements are more accurate.3. Enhanced Control: These systems give you more control over how the LACT unit operates byallowing parts to communicate with one another easily.2.8.6 Operation and data flow of wired monitoring systems in LACT unit1. Sensor measurement: Sensors in several LACT unit locations track variables including flowrate, pressure, temperature, and BS&W content. 2. Signal transmission: Measured analogue signals are sent to the Data Acquisition System(DAS) using communication cables. 3. Analog-to-Digital Conversion: DAS's analog-to- digital converters (ADCs) transformanalogue signals into digital data.39
4. Data processing: The data is sent to the Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) or control unitin order to handle and examine5. Control commands: Based on the processed data, the PLC sends control commands toactuators and control devices including valves and pumps so regulating the operation of theLACT unit.6. Data Logging and Visualization: To track in real time and examine in the past, the processeddata is kept in databases and displayed on Human-Machine Interfaces (HMIs) or SupervisorControl and Data Acquisition (SCADA) systems.2.8.7 The Disadvantages of Wired Monitoring Systems in LACT Unit Devices.1. Installation Complexity:Setting in wired monitoring systems in LACT (Lease AutomaticCustody Transfer) unit devices can take a lot of time and is quite difficult. Many cables arerequired to link monitors, controllers, and sensors as well as gear. Khalil et al., 2022 This processusually requires much planning and coordination to effectively route cables and preventdamaging current infrastructure. Skilled technicians must do difficult physical labour layingcables through conduits, trenches, or overhead supports to guarantee the job is completedcorrectly. Furthermore, legal and safety criteria have to be satisfied during the setup, hence theprocess gets even more challenging. 2. Cost:Wired monitoring systems can be quite expensive to install. This covers the cost ofacquiring premium cables and connectors fit for an industrial environment such as a LACT unit.Hiring people to complete the installation can also be costly, particularly for large projects40
requiring extensive wiring. Hiring qualified professionals to perform the installation andindustry-defined guidelines followed causes even more increase in expenses. Maintaining thewired infrastructure after the initial setup involves continuous expenses including purchasingnew cables and connectors in case of damage.3. Maintenance:Wired monitoring systems require regular maintenance to guaranteedependability and good performance. Like temperature and humidity, environmental conditionsincluding chemicals can cause cables to gradually wear out. Any possible cable damage—cuts,abrasions, or connector corrosion—must be found and corrected on regular inspections.Correcting the grounding will help to ensure the system is free from electrical interference andsurges that might compromise monitoring. (2) Engebretsen 2022 Chaves Maintenance calls forboth replacement of parts as needed and integrity check of connections. This can call for systemdowntime and hard labour. 4. Limited Flexibility:Wired systems naturally lack the flexibility of wireless substitutes, thusthey make it difficult to reconfigure or extend the monitoring configuration. Any change inlayout or addition of a new sensor or device calls for significant effort and money. Usually, thismeans running fresh cables, adjusting current paths, and ensuring additional components areprecisely included into the current system. Particularly in dynamic operational environmentswhen fast changes are needed, such tasks can be disruptive and time-consuming. Because theirrigid character can prevent scalability and adaptation to changing monitoring needs, wiredsystems are less suited for quick changing industrial configurations. 2.9SCADA monitoring system in the LACT unit41
Supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) systems, according to Kumar et al. (2021),are all-in-one platforms for real-time monitoring and control of industrial activity. They provideoperators with a single screen to manage and enhance processes after gathering data from severalsensors and control systems. More especially, LACT units monitor, control, and facilitate themovement of crude oil using SCADA systems, so guaranteeing accuracy and efficiency.2.9.1 Roles of SCADA system in LACT unit monitoring1. Centralized Monitoring: Constant, real-time monitoring made possible by SCADA systems allows a complete picture of all the parameters and activities occurring in the LACT unit. 2. Data Integration: These systems compile information from several sensors and instruments on one platform so that it may be closely examined and appropriate decisions may be taken based on accurate data. 3. Control and Automation: By automating control operations made possible by SCADA systems, manual labour is less needed and operational efficiency is much increased.2.9.2 Components of SCADA system in LACT monitoring1.Human-Machine Interface (HMI): This section provides operators with a graphic userinterface means to communicate with the SCADA system. (2) Engebretsen 2022; chaves Itprovides real-time data, alarms, and control choices that help one easily manage the LACT unit.42
2.Supervisory Software: This layer of software shows data from field devices on the HMI. Itcomprises tools for data acquisition, storage, and analysis.3.Data Acquisition Systems (DAS): These systems send data to the software monitoringeverything from sensors and instruments within the LACT unit. Two parts of a DAS arecommunication modules and analog-to- digital converters (ADCs).4.Remote Terminal Units (RTUs) and Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs): Thesedevices perform control commands and interact with field sensors and actuators depending ondata from the SCADA system. Data acquisition and control of PLCs and RTUs falls to them.5.Communication Infrastructure:This covers the network and physical layers allowing fielddevices, RTUs, PLCs, and the SCADA central server data transmission and reception. It mightmake use of wireless connections or wire networks (such as Ethernet or fiber optics).6.Data Storage:These systems save past data so that it may be examined and presented goingforward. Among the several approaches data can be kept are database, file systems, and cloudstorage. 2.9.3Supportive infrastructures of SCADA system in LACT unit monitoring1.Alarm and Notification Systems:Tell operators about unusual events or system faultsso they may respond fast and resolve the issue.2.Backup and Redundancy Systems: Having backup systems and components helps toensure that operations continue even should something go wrong or requires repairs.Data acquisition and monitoring operation of SCADA systems in LACT unit43
1.Sensor Data Collection:Among the sensors included into the LACT unit and providingreal-time data to SCADA systems are flow meters, pressure sensors, temperature sensors, andBS&W monitors.2.Data Transmission: Data is sent from sensors to RTUs or PLCs, which subsequently usecommunication networks to forward it to the SCADA central server3.Data Visualization: The supervisory program shows and analyzes data on the HMI, soproviding operators with real-time view of the LACT unit's performance and condition. 2.9.5Management and automation of SCADA system operations in the LACTunit1. Real-Time Control:Operators can quickly assign machine control orders using the Human-Machine Interface (HMI). Leach, not long ago, included things like moving valves around tocontrol flow, adjusting pump speeds to control pressure and volume, or starting the shutdownprocess in case of an emergency or for maintenance needs. The simple interface of the HMIguarantees the best safety and performance by allowing operators to react fast and precisely toshifting operational needs.2.Automated Processes:Based on already defined conditions and thresholds, SCADA systemsare designed to automate significant and regular tasks. lawan et al., 2020 The system canautomatically reroute the crude oil flow to maintain quality standards, for instance, if the BasicSediment and Water (BS&W) content in the crude oil exceeds allowed level. By ensuring that44
procedures are always carried out according to set criteria, this automation reduces the need forcontinuous human supervision, lowers the risk of mistakes, and increases efficiency.3.Alarm Management:The SCADA system boasts robust alarm management tools that canrapidly identify and document any issues. The system sounds alarms and generates alerts when itdetects anomalies in things like malfunctioning machinery or safety lapses. These alarms providethorough information about the issue and let the operator take immediate action to resolve it, sorapidly grabbing her attention. Good alarm management guarantees that issues are resolvedbefore they become more severe, so maintaining the safety and integrity of operations.2.9.6 Demerit of SCADA system in LACT unit Monitoring 1. Complexity: Maintaining and setting up SCADA systems requires particular technicalknowledge and expertise since they are rather difficult. Setting up a SCADA system requiresextensive knowledge of hardware and software components including sensors, controllers,network configurations, and data collecting systems. Additionally necessary knowledge ofautomation, programming, and systems engineering is putting these components together into asystem that runs properly. Because it entails continuously monitoring the system, fixing issues,and improving its performance so it may adapt to evolving operational needs and newtechnologies, continuous maintenance is also difficult (Khalil, et al., 2022).2. Cost:Especially for large or complex installations, the financial outlay required to establish aSCADA system can be substantial. First expenses include hardware including sensors, RTUs,PLCs, and servers as well as software licenses for SCADA systems and associated apps. Setting45
up and installing these components comes with expenses as well, including consultant or skilledworker hiring costs. Infrastructure investments—such as building a network and includingsecurity—add to the overall cost. The long-term advantages in terms of speed, accuracy, andcontrol make the investment worthwhile even if initially it is expensive.3. Cybersecurity Risks:SCADA systems can be hacked since they are online connected. Strongsecurity policies are thus absolutely required. Threats can include more complicated cyberattacksthat might stop operations or compromise private data as well as illegal access and data leaks.Using whole security measures—firewalls, encryption, intrusion detection systems, and frequentsecurity audits—helps one guard against these dangers. Furthermore required are tight accessrestrictions and user authentication mechanisms to prevent unauthorized users from accessingcrucial system components. You must be always vigilant and current to keep the system safe andsecure and ahead of fresh cybersecurity hazards.4. Maintenance:SCADA systems must be kept dependable and functioning by regularmaintenance and upgrades. This covers routine software updates to fix flaws, add freshcapabilities, and strengthen security. Regular check and calibration of hardware componentsincluding sensors and controllers helps to ensure that they gather data and control functions asintended. Moving data between several components of the system depends on thecommunication infrastructure, thus regular check and repair of it is necessary to prevent issues.Regular maintenance and quick resolution of any issues will help to significantly extend theuseful life of the system and maintain its flawless operation. Maintaining SCADA systems alsohelps individuals who keep up with changes in technology and operational needs to get regulartraining and skill upgrades.46
2.9Sensor technologies for monitoring LACT unitMaking sure crude oil is measured and moved accurately depends critically on sensortechnologies found in LACT units. To ensure the oil satisfies quality criteria and is movedproperly, these technologies monitor flow rate, temperature, pressure, and BS&W content(Wang, 2022). The primary forms of sensors used to monitor LACT units are explained in greatlength here:2.10.1 Flow Measurement Sensors: Measuring flow in LACT units helps one to determine thecrude oil movement amount. The most often occurring forms of flow sensors are these:1. Turbine Flow Meters: These monitor the flow rate by observing turbine turning speed in theflow stream. Accurate volume measurements are made possible by the speed's correlation withthe speed of the fluid. 2. Coriolis Flow Meters: Some of these directly use changes in fluid flow through the sensortubes to gauge mass flow and density. They can simultaneously gauge density and flow rate andare rather accurate.3. Positive Displacement Meters: These measure flow by capturing a fixed volume of fluid in achamber and counting the number of times the chamber is filled and emptied. They are highlyaccurate and are often used for custody transfer applications.47
Figure 2.8 Turbine flow meter (Kimray Inc, 2021)Figure 2.9 Coriolis flow meter (Kimray Inc, 2021)48
Figure 2.10 Positive displacement meters (Petroleum Extension, 2022)2.10.2 Temperature Sensors: Temperature significantly affects the volume of crude oil, makingtemperature measurement essential for accurate custody transfer. Common temperature sensors include:1. Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs): These sensors measure temperature by correlatingthe resistance of the RTD element with temperature. They provide accurate and stablemeasurements over a wide temperature range.2. Thermocouples: These measure temperature by generating a voltage proportional to thetemperature difference between two dissimilar metal junctions. They are robust and can measurea wide temperature range but are generally less accurate than RTDs.2.10.3 Pressure Sensors: Pressure sensors monitor the pressure within the pipeline to ensuresafe and efficient operation. Accurate pressure measurement is crucial for maintaining the49
integrity of the pipeline and ensuring accurate volume calculations. Common pressure sensorsinclude:Fig 2.11 A resistance temperature detectors (Petroleum Extension, 2022)50
Figure 2.12 Digital and analogue pressure sensors (Abdelgawad, et al., 2006)Fig 2.13 Density sensor (Abdelgawad, et al., 2006)1.Piezoelectric Pressure Sensors: These use piezoelectric materials that generate an electriccharge in response to applied pressure. They offer high sensitivity and are suitable for dynamicpressure measurements.2.Strain Gauge Pressure Sensors: These measure pressure by detecting the deformation(strain) of a material under pressure, which changes the electrical resistance of the strain gauge.They provide accurate and stable measurements.2.10.4 BS&W (Basic Sediment and Water) Sensors: Key in determining the quality of thecrude oil is knowing the water and sediment content in it, thus BS&W sensors measure this as51
well. Many BS&W in the oil might reduce its value and complicate usage. The most oftenoccurring BS&W sensors are these:1.Capacitance Probes: These examine the crude oil's dielectric constant, which varies inrelation to water content. The probe uses changes in capacitive reactance to determine watercontent.2.Microwave and Sub-Megahertz Sensors: These employ low-frequency or microwaves todetermine the dielectric constant of the crude oil. Should these characteristics alter, sediment andwater will be evident. 3.Energy Absorption Sensors: These sensors let you track the crude oil's energy intake—that of infrared light. Different materials absorb energy at different rates, thus the sensor candistinguish between water and sediment content.2.10.5 Density Sensors: Measurement of crude oil's density helps one determine its quality andconsistency. LACT units sometimes feature the following density sensors1.Vibrating Element Density Sensors: These use changes in the frequency of vibration of asensor element submerged in fluid to determine something's density. The density of the fluiddictates the frequency.2.Coriolis Flow Meters: Apart from gauging flow rate, Coriolis meters can also determinefluid density. Measurements are thus more accurate and quick.2.10.6 Integration and Data ManagementMany modern LACT units have these sensors built into a complete monitoring and controlsystem. 2020 according to Bacci di Capaci and colleagues. This system processes data gleaned52
from many sensors. It then real-timely watches and regulates the crude oil transfer mechanism.Important components of the combined system consist in:1.Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs): These components run control systems tomaintain the LACT unit operating as it picks data from sensors. They ensure that the crude oiltransfer is quick and accurate. 2.Human-Machine Interfaces (HMIs): These interfaces give operators LACT unit controlover as well as real-time data. Their sensor readings, alarms, and system status help to enablequick decision-making and intervention should needed. 3.Data Acquisition Systems: These systems compile data from the sensors, save it, and analyze it.They thus have comprehensive records of the transfer process. They simplify analysis andimprovement of performance as well as help to ensure that legal criteria are satisfied. 2.10.7 Technological advancements in LACT unit monitoring (Cloud-Based Monitoring)Cloud-based monitoring—using cloud computing technologies—allows one to run severalsystems and processes, monitor, and analyze them (figure 2.14). Because it can increaseoperational efficiency, help people make better decisions, and reduce costs, this approach isbeing applied increasingly in many disciplines, including oil and gas, manufacturing, IT, andhealthcare (Egwurube, et al., 2018).Cloud-based monitoring has transformed the oil and gas sector as well as how businesses run andenhance their operations (Wang, 2022.). From far-off monitoring, analysis, and control of their53
assets, oil and gas companies can leverage cloud computing. This makes them better able tomake decisions, safer, and more efficient. Since cloud-based monitoring first emerged,companies have run their operations quite differently. Using the cloud lets companies be moreefficient, save money, and gain knowledge about their operations. This sharpens theirperformance and increases their competitiveness. Monitoring tools and operations in the oil and gas industry historically typically needed on-sitepersonnel and outdated systems with slow data processing capability and difficult access. Nowthat cloud-based monitoring is accessible, however, real-time data can be sent from sitesincluding drilling rigs, pipelines, and manufacturing facilities to a central cloud platform.Operators can thus access vital information from anywhere with an internet-connected gadget. The ability of cloud-based monitoring to combine and examine a lot of data from severallocations is among its best features. Advanced analytics and machine learning techniques allowone to forecast equipment performance, reservoir behavior, and operational risks by means ofthis data. Figure 2.15 Monitoring setup for cloud computing (Priyanka, et al., 2016)54
Fig 2.16 Architecture of a generic cloud computing network (Zhifeng, 2019)With this capacity to forecast future events, companies can engage in proactive maintenance, soreducing downtime and avoiding expensive failures. Moreover flexible and able to be enlarged as necessary are cloud-based solutions. It's simple toadd more monitoring capabilities when operations expand or change without having to purchasea lot of fresh hardware. This helps to adapt to evolving market needs and reduces capital costs(Zhifeng, 2019). Security is also rather crucial. Strong data encryption and industry standardsfollowing by cloud service providers help to safeguard private data. 55
Through real-time visibility, advanced analytics, and improved safety measures, cloud-basedmonitoring generally helps the oil and gas sector operate better. This helps businesses to copewith the difficulties of an evolving and complicated energy scene. 2.10.8Benefits of cloud-based solutions in industrial applications 1.Scalability:Without having to buy a lot of new hardware, cloud platformsallow one to readily add growing volumes of data and more monitoring points2.Cost-Efficiency: Using cloud services lets businesses use a pay-as---you-go model andcut capital costs for physical infrastructure3.Accessibility: Working from home and collaborating with others is made simpler sinceyou can access data and insights from anywhere in the world. 4.Real-Time Decision Making: When companies can examine data in real time, they canreact fast to changes. This reduces downtime and helps to stop expensive mishaps. 2.10.9Core Components of Cloud-Based Monitoring1. Data Collection:As Figure 2.16 shows, cloud-based monitoring begins with compiling datafrom many sources—such as sensors, tools, or software applications. In the oil and gas industry,this can include data from drilling sites, pipelines, storage tanks, manufacturing plants, andenvironmental monitoring systems (David, 2021). Among the factors defining these data pointsare pressure, temperature, flow rates, equipment condition, and emissions.56
2. Data Transmission: Real-time data collecting sends the gathered materials to the cloud. Thisis usually done over the Internet or private networks most of the times. This guarantees that datatravels safely from far-off or scattered sites to a central cloud platform. 3. Cloud Storage: The data moves to the cloud and is kept in a safe location with expandabilityas necessary. Large volumes of data can be handled by cloud storage solutions, thus you canretain old data for long-term study and compliance needs.4. Data Processing and Analytics: Data in the cloud is handled on powerful computers.Advanced analytics help one to make sense of the raw facts. These consist in predictivemodeling and machine learning techniques. Finding trends, planning when equipment will fail,streamlining procedures, and ensuring everyone's safety depend on this stage.5. Visualization and Dashboards: Easy-to-use dashboards and visualizations display theprocessed data following its handling. By means of web browsers or mobile apps, theseinterfaces provide stakeholders with real-time data regarding the operations of their companies.Users of these dashboards can customize them such that they concentrate on personally relevantkey performance indicators (KPIs). 6. Alerting and Notifications: When specific criteria are satisfied, cloud-based monitoringsystems can be configured to provide alarms or alerts. For example, the system can automaticallyalert operators should a sensor identify a drop in pressure below a specified level so they mayrespond immediately.7. Integration with Other Systems: Many times, cloud-based monitoring systems interface withother corporate systems including Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP), Customer Relationship57
Management (CRM), Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA). This integrationallows data to move naturally between departments—including finance, operations, and otherareas of the company.8. Security and Compliance: Strong security measures are used by cloud service providers, suchas encryption, authentication, and following industry standards such as ISO/IEC 27001 and theGeneral Data Protection Regulation (GDPR). To keep private information safe and make surebusinesses follow the rules, these steps are necessary. 2.10.10 Implementation of Cloud Monitoring in the Oil and Gas In the oil and gas sector, cloud-based monitoring technologies have advanced considerablyduring the past ten years. Better care for the environment and safer, more efficient operationsdriven by which have brought about these changes (Wang, 2022). The oil and gas sector hasbenefited from these developments in cloud-based monitoring technologies; they have made itsafer, more environmentally friendly, and more efficient. AI, IoT, and other fresh technologiesare probably going to be applied in the sector even more as technology keeps improving. Thiswill drastically affect operations even more and equip businesses for success in an environmentgoing more digital. These are some significant changes:1. Predictive Maintenance: Among the most significant developments are combining machinelearning techniques with cloud-based monitoring systems. These systems examine real-time andhistorical data to determine when equipment will fail, so enabling maintenance before it does.This extends the lifetime of vital assets and reduces downtime. 58
2. Enhanced Reservoir Management: Machine learning models are currently examiningproduction data, well logs, and seismic data. This helps us to better understand the nature of thereservoir and how to most exploit its resources for production.3. Faster Data Processing: Edge computing allows data to be handled near to where it originates,say on offshore platforms or at the wellhead. This applies to cloud-based observation. Thisreduces bandwidth use and latency, so enabling people to make decisions faster. Data from manyedge sites is then kept and examined from a central location—the cloud.4. More Connected Devices: There are now far more oil and gas operations using IoT sensorsthan in past years. Among the several things these sensors can detect are temperature, pressure,vibration, and flow rates. Combining IoT with cloud platforms allows assets to be continuouslyand in real time, so providing a whole picture of operations.5. Real-Time Alerts: With more IoT devices linked to the cloud, companies can get immediatealarms for any unusual activity the sensors detect. This helps them to handle possible issues morefast. 6. Robust Security Protocols: Keeping a lot of private data stored in cloud-based monitoringsystems safe has become rather crucial. Following international security guidelines (such asISO/IEC 27001) and advancing encryption, multi-factor authentication, and other facets of dataprotection and monitoring will help you.7. AI-Driven Threat Detection: Using artificial intelligence more and more to identify and stopcyber threats in real time gives cloud-based monitoring systems still another degree ofprotection.59
8. Virtual Models: Digital twin technology—which creates a digital copy of a real asset in thecloud—is gathering increasing appeal in the oil and gas sector. These digital twins let businessestest scenarios, run simulations, and project how various approaches will work withoutinfluencing actual operations.9. Improved Asset Management: By constantly adding real-time data from cloud-basedmonitoring systems to the digital twin all the time, companies can lower the risk of operationalfailures and increase the performance of their assets. 10. Elastic Cloud Resources: Modern cloud systems with scalable resources let oil and gascompanies adjust their computing power and storage needs on demand. Handling the evolvingcharacter of oil and gas operations—that is, when production levels fluctuate or when new datasources must be rapidly added—this flexibility is absolutely vital.11. Hybrid Cloud Solutions: Thanks to hybrid cloud architectures that mix on-site, private cloud,and public cloud resources, companies can now customize their monitoring systems to meetparticular operational needs and regulatory constraints.12. Automated Reporting: Cloud-based technologies have raised the industry's capacity forregulatory compliance assurance and environmental impact monitoring. Timeliness and accuracyin data submission to regulatory authorities made possible by automated reporting tools help tolower risk of fines and legal problems.13. Carbon Footprint Tracking: Businesses can monitor and report their greenhouse gasemissions using fresh cloud-based tools nowadays. This helps them to satisfy worldsustainability targets and reduce their carbon footprint.60
14. Decision Support Systems: AI-powered decision support systems have evolved over recentyears to assist in difficult decisions. Examining vast volumes of data from cloud-basedmonitoring systems allows artificial intelligence to provide us useful information that makesthings safer, runs more smoothly, and makes better use of resources. 15. Autonomous Operations: Combining artificial intelligence and cloud-based monitoringallows systems to run on their own, make decisions, and grow personally free from humanintervention.2.11 Data Transmission and Communication Protocols for LACT unit monitoringLACT unit monitoring systems have to be able to use communication protocols and transmitdata. From many sensors to control systems, data acquisition units, and monitoring stations faraway, they enable safe and consistent data transfer from many sources. When communicationsystems function as they should, real-time data on flow rate, temperature, pressure, BS&Wcontent, and other parameters is delivered precisely (Lawan, et al., 2020). This facilitates controland monitoring. Here we will discuss in more detail the LACT unit monitoring's communicationand data transfer protocols applied for both wired and wireless connections.2.11.1 Wired communication protocols1.Modbus: Often found in industrial environments, including LACT units, Modbus is aserial communication tool. Among the networks available for device communication are RS-232,RS-485, TCP/IP, and TCP/IP (Khalil, 202). Because Modbus is straightforward and user-friendly, people enjoy it. Under a master-slave arrangement, it allows data to be sent whereby a61
master device—such as a PLC or a data acquisition system—asks slave devices—such as sensorsand meters—for data and controls how they operate.2.HART (Highway Addressable Remote Transducer): HART, a hybrid communicationprotocol, sends digital data over conventional 4-20 mA analog wiring. Given its two purposes,it's simple to include into current systems. Two-way communication made possible by HARTlets devices send and receive data, perform diagnostics, and remotely change settings. LACTunits, which must be able to be watched over and regulated from a distance, will find thisfunction particularly useful.3.Foundation Fieldbus: Made for rather complex systems that automate factories,Foundation Fieldbus is a digital communication standard. It allows many field devices to connectto the same network, so enabling data transmission, device setup, and diagnostics. BecauseFoundation Fieldbus guarantees data integrity and dependable communication, it can be used forreal-time control and monitoring in LACTunits. 2.11.2 Wireless communication protocols1.Wireless HART: An addition to the HART protocol, Wireless HART lets field devicesand control systems communicate wirelessly. A self-organizing and self-healing mesh networkguarantees dependability and safety for data flow (John and Igimoh, 2017). LACT units inremote or dangerous locations where wiring can be difficult to install or expensive areparticularly benefited from wireless HART.2.ISA100.11a: ISA100.11a One standard for industrial wireless communication intendedfor use in process automation is Features including frequency hopping, redundancy, and62
encryption help to support safe, dependable wireless communication. For LACT units needing tosend and receive a lot of data quickly and consistently, ISA100.11a performs effectively.3.Wi-Fi: Wi-Fi (Wireless Fidelity) is a common type of wireless communication allowingquick data transfer over a short to medium range. LACT units allow Wi-Fi to link surroundingsystems and devices to a main control system or monitoring station far away. Wi-Fi is fantasticfor temporary setups or scenarios where you have to be able to move around.4.IoT (Internet of Things) Integration:Connecting LACT units to the internet allowsInternet of Things (IoT) integration to enable closer monitoring and control of them. Thisprovides access to and management of data from a distance. IoT systems use protocols likeMQTT (Message Queuing Telemetry Transport) and CoAP (Constrained Application Protocol)to send data fast across the internet. Real-time monitoring, predictive maintenance, and dataanalytics made possible by the Internet of Things (IoT) help LACT units be more dependableandefficientgenerally.2.12Review of Related LiteraturesThrough their studies, Abdelgawad, Lewis, Elgamel, Issa, Teng, and Bayoumi (2006) developeda fresh approach for monitoring and evaluating oil and gas fluids. Research by Abdelgawad et al.(2021) included creating a prototype for consistently accurate flow rate measurement from an oilindustry distance. Data was sent across a Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) using a CrossbowTechnology MICA2 mote and the NuFloat Measurement System Model MC-II Flow Analyzer.The primary goal of the research was to provide a means for the oil and gas sector to63
consistently, continuously, and precisely monitor flow rates and total fluid flow free from humanmistake. These chores used to require hand labor. Research included simulating flow conditions,connecting the Flow Analyzer to the mote transmitter and receiver, and building an amplifiercircuit to enhance signal detection. To enable real-time analysis, the gathered data wastransferred to a host computer and stored in a Postgres database. According to the prototype, thebattery should run 1.5 to 2.5 years and the flow meter and host computer could interact up to 55feet away. Since the gathered data matched the analyzer's shown flow rates, the system wascompletely integrated and operated as expected. Future research may involve adding more kindsof sensors and investigating how they interact, claims Abdelgawad et al. (2006). It should bementioned that although the present prototype may not be able to meet the difficulties ofincluding several kinds of sensors into the well testing surroundings yet. The findings are significant since they prove that it is feasible to mix modern wirelesstechnology with old analog sensors. More effective operations could follow from improvedaccuracy and dependability of monitoring flow rates in oil production. John and Igimoh (2015) developed a real-time system tracking oil and gas flow rate in order toincrease openness and responsibility in the sector. The system allows users of several locationsmonitor daily production from a distance. The system employs architecture based on wirelesssensor networks. A wireless network feeds data to a database server; flow rate sensors, an LCD,and a microcontroller display data. Working with IEEE 802.11 criteria, the scheme comprises aWiFi module (MRF24WBOMA). This allows people to quickly communicate without runningthe microcontroller too much memory consumption. 64
This study aimed to find a means to reduce the high expenses of manually monitoring oil and gasflow by means of remote site sending of technicians. Lack of metering infrastructure in Nigeria'soil and gas industry was seen as a major issue requiring a consistent and reasonably priced meansof monitoring affairs. The system developed allowed one to evaluate oil from wellheads toexport terminals more precisely. This increases openness and responsibility in oil liftingactivities. It also lessens the expenses of hand monitoring. According to John and Igimoh, 2015, the system satisfies the demand for real-time monitoringand data access; nevertheless, the security of the wireless sensor network might not be flawlesssince someone who shouldn't be supposed to could disable the monitoring system. Furthermorelacking in detail in the literature are how well the system performs in demanding conditions orhow it might be enlarged to manage more extensive operations. In a 2016 study by Priyanka, Krishnamurthy, and Maheswari, a PLC-based controller's ability toregulate flow and pressure in a liquid transmission system was underlined by an experiment. APLC running RS Logix 500, a pump, pressure sensors, and control valves created a lab-sizedexperiment set-up. The control valve opening was adjusted depending on pressure signals fromsensors positioned at several pipeline points in order to test the system. Examining the open loopresponse helped us to understand how pressure alters flow rate. (Priyanka, et al., 2016) investigation targetted to replace manual control of valve openings withan automated PLC-based system to maintain desired pressure ranges and flow rates during thetransmission of petroleum through pipelines, thereby preventing back pressure that could damagethe pipelines. The PLC-based controller successfully maintained pressure and flow rates within65
the set point range, although a time delay was noted before control actions were executed. Theanalysis showed that maximum pressure occurred at the inlet and decreased towards the outlet.However, (Priyanka, et al., 2016) study does not address the real-time system requirements thatwere ignored in the experimental setup, which may affect the applicability of the results in actualindustrial conditions.Again, investigation by (Gosavi, Gawade and Gautam, 2017) explored the development of asystem to monitor and forecast water consumption through domestic pipelines, utilizingadvanced data analytics and various prediction techniques. The proposed system consists of aflow meter, microcontroller (Arduino), microcomputer (Raspberry Pi), and cloud infrastructure.The flow meter measures water flow using a Hall effect sensor, and the data is processed anduploaded to a web server for user access. SVM regression technique was employed for makingpredictions regarding water consumption, which was tested with a half inch pipeline.Domestic distribution plants must be able to precisely estimate water usage if they are to controlwater well. Both expensive and ineffective are the present manual monitoring systems. We needa more automated and accurate solution if we are to better control demand, asset, and leakagemanagement.According to Gosavi et al. (2017), water use monitoring and prediction turned out successful.With among the several techniques applied, SVM regression had the lowest mean squared rooterror. The system shows users how much water they are using over a web interface. Gosavi etal., 2017 discussed data security, power management, and sensor accuracy among physicalconcerns. They also discussed how better data prediction models might raise consumersatisfactionandoutcomes.66
Examining how to build and set up a cloud-based monitoring and control system for industrialprocesses, the paper by (Egwurube, Kamalu, and Nwazor, 2018) It demonstrated simultaneouslyhow cloud computing might support management and security. It covers how to set up and usedata dictionaries for tracking tables including voltage, temperature, and pressure as well as howto run MySQL to handle databases. Designed on PHP, the system records past data and respondsto issues while also allowing you real-time data and control to monitor equipment from adistance. The last section discusses how effectively the system performs for remote monitoringand offers some recommendations for enhancements—such as including more intelligent controlmeasures—that would help to make it still better. Researchers (Riccardo Bacci di Capaci and Claudio Scali, 2020) investigated how best to makePlant Check Up (PCU), a cloud-based monitoring system, operate for evaluating the performanceof control loops in factories. The system moved from conventional on-site solutions to a cloud-based architecture, allowing data monitoring and analysis from many facilities all around theglobe. It features several analytical modules to identify control loop issues and offer solutions.Case studies illustrating how the system might be applied in the real world and how effectively itperforms in terms of performance monitoring and problem identification also feature in thepaper. Four main components comprised the study approach: cloud architecture; analytical tooldevelopment; data management; remote management interface development. A fresh version ofthe analytical tool was created for the evolution of it. Its analysis modules are several, includingan initialization module and a loop anomaly identification module. These modules are supposedto identify control loop faults and offer solutions. Before data management uses the data, the67
initiation module gathers it from the field and verifies its quality. Should the data quality be pooror the control valve be set in manual mode, the loop is designated as "Not Analyzed". At last the remote management interface featured a web interface for handling remotemanagement. This lets consumers with varying degrees of access and rights access and managedata. The study revealed that Plant Check Up (PCU-Cloud), a cloud-based monitoring system,performs effectively for tracking the performance of industrial plants and identifying controlloop faults. The system's application in several significant control loops demonstrated itsrelevance in real-life scenarios by proving that it can identify several kinds of failures and goodoperation conditions. The system also included lists of causes why things were not working aswell as thorough performance reviews including the total number of various states for loops andactuators.The 2021 research by Khalil, Khomonenko, and Matushko dissected a probabilistic model forcloud infrastructure comprising a monitoring system. It considered how monitoring influencesthe likelihood of service delays and request blocking. Along with Mathcad simulations to supportit, it contains mathematical formulas for calculating these odds and average wait times.According to the findings, increasing virtual machines can help to reduce overall monitoringdelays; yet, it could also cause people to average longer wait times for services. The studyreveals the need of considering monitoring time while offering cloud services. It also points upareas for more investigation, including examining various request flows and processingapproaches. Focusing on the time it takes to process requests, Khalil et al. (2021) investigatedmore precisely the effects of monitoring on cloud computing systems. It emphasizes the need ofmonitoring for providing companies using cloud services with a clear view of application68
performance and computing resources. The writers believe that a model considering monitoringtime and considering the possibilities of delay, waiting, and blocking should be present.Particularly on Amazon Web Services (AWS) and Microsoft Azure, which are used by a lot ofpeople, it is underlined how crucial good cloud monitoring is to ensure performance,dependability,andsecurity.David, 2021 also designed a reasonably priced edge-cloud computing system. hib.David, 2021also developed a cheap edge-cloud computing hybrid solution for small manufacturingcompanies to monitor plant operations in real time. Rid solution for small manufacturingcompanies to monitor plant operations in real time.The solution utilizes IIoT technology andopen-source frameworks like Node-RED, Mosquitto, InfluxDB, and Grafana. It overcomesadoption barriers by using resource-constrained hardware like Raspberry Pi and allows remotemonitoring and control of plant assets. Performance testing shows that Raspberry Pi canefficiently handle a workload of up to 1,000 OPC-UA datapoints. The solution addressesmanpower challenges and enables quick response to system events, ensuring a safe workingenvironment. Legal and security considerations are taken into account. The project successfullyimplements a cloud-based monitoring solution, laying the foundation for analytics.In their 2022 study, Naslednikov and Petrov explored the significance of employing informationsystems in the oil industry, focusing on monitoring systems. Investigated was the "Oil CustodyTransfer Metering System" (CTM), sometimes known as the "Lease Automatic CustodyTransfer" (LACT) unit. Looking at the performance of every component, the writers devised amethod to determine the CTM's technological level. The CTM arrangement is first observed as amathematical graph in which every element is a node and the links among them are edges. Then,69
on this graph, the K-shortest path search method is applied to identify several shortest pathsdisplaying various operational routes and states in the CTM. Examining these paths will help oneto evaluate the general performance and efficiency of the CTM, so indicating its operationalstate.To ensure this approach works, Naslednikov and Petrov created a prototype module to examinethe technological condition of the CTM. This module features a universal interface capable ofobtaining first data from several source systems. This lets it create varied initial CTM diagramsusing the Microsoft Visio platform. Going over each step in great detail, they demonstrated howthe module might be used on a CTM with two measuring lines. This research is valuable not onlyfor its applicability in real-world projects but also as a resource for advanced training ofprofessionals responsible for operating CTM systems. Their work highlights the potential ofintegrating advanced information systems and algorithmic approaches to enhance the monitoringand maintenance of critical metrological equipment in the oil industry, leading to more reliableand efficient operations.In another development, (Lawan, Oduoza, and Buckley 2021) x-rayed in their paper the adoptionof cloud computing in the upstream oil and gas industry, highlighting the current state ofadoption, the factors influencing this adoption, and presenting a conceptual model to facilitatedecision-making. A literature review was conducted to gather existing knowledge and identifythe crucial factors that impact cloud adoption. To develop a whole model that separates elementsinto three main groups, several theories—including the Technology-Organization-Environment(TOE) framework, institutional theory, and the diffusion of innovation—are applied in thispaper.70
The research was started because it is known that cloud computing has many benefits, includingthe ability to grow, be flexible, and lower costs. However, the upstream oil and gas sector is stillhesitant to fully adopt this technology because they are worried about security, trust, privacy,data integrity, and reliability. In particular, the industry deals with private data that needs strongsecurity. People are afraid of getting into the data without permission and changing it, whichslows down efforts to adopt. Key findings from the study show that security concerns are very high, and companies arehesitant to give their private exploration data to outside cloud services. Trust in service providersis also very important because it protects the privacy, security, and authenticity of datamanagement. Privacy concerns and the need to keep data safe while it's being sent are also bigproblems that make it hard to adopt. The research shows that even though cloud computingmight help with operational efficiency and data management, there is still a big knowledge gapin how to effectively solve these problems and boost adoption rates in the industry. Lawan et al. (2017) said that even though there is a lot of information about the benefits and usesof cloud computing in the upstream oil and gas sector, there is still a big hole in our knowledgeabout the exact reasons why people don't use it. This means that more research needs to be doneto look into more problems and come up with specific plans that could help cloud technologiesbecome more popular in this very important industry. The study by (Zhifeng, Fei, Xuehui, Qi, Zhen, and Yidah, 2019) looked at how cloud computingand big data are used together in the oil and gas industry. It emphasized how important thesetechnologies are for managing complicated data-driven operations. The main goal was to look atthe problems and chances that these technologies bring, especially when it comes to making thesector more efficient, safe, and easy to use. This approach came about because the industry71
needed better ways to integrate data, store it, and create collaborative work spaces, all of whichwere important for making operations run more smoothly and decisions better. To do these things, the study looked at the structure and uses of shared cloud storage systemsmade to deal with the huge amounts of seismic data that are common in oil and gas exploration.It was suggested to use a distributed parallel cloud storage architecture that is very stable, secure,and scalable to meet the growing data needs of the industry. This cloud infrastructure is made upof several important parts, such as storage, computing, and network subsystems. These partswork together to make processing and storing data more efficient. Implementing cloud desktopapplications was also looked into. These make operations run more smoothly across manydepartments in the industry. Several important new things were found as a result of this research. This is the first way thatcloud computing and big data technologies can make it easier for different departments in the oiland gas industry to share data and work together. Putting these technologies together lets youprocess and analyze data in real time, which is very important for making smart choices inexploration and production. In addition, the study showed that cloud storage solutions can getaround the problems that come with traditional data management systems, making operations runmoresmoothlyoverall.The discoveries made by Zhifeng et al. (2019) are important for more than just making thingswork better right now. The oil and gas industry can be more competitive in a market that ischanging quickly by using cloud computing and big data analytics. According to the research,investing in these technologies could save a lot of money and make operations run moresmoothly. It is expected that cloud-related costs will rise from USD 1 billion in 2012 to overUSD 42 billion a year in the next few years. 72
Even though there were some positive developments, some research gaps were found. Zhifeng etal. (2019) said that while it is clear that cloud computing and big data technologies have benefits,there are still concerns about data security and privacy. Since the oil and gas industry deals withprivate data, they need strong security measures to keep it safe from hackers and other peoplewho shouldn't have access. The study also said that more research needs to be done on the long-term effects of using cloud technology, especially on how to make sure that regulations arefollowed and how to combine old systems with new cloud solutions. The study of cloud computing and big data in the oil and gas industry was thought to have givenimportant information on how to improve operational efficiency and data management. Theresults show how important these technologies are for solving problems in the sector and alsopoint out areas that need more research to make sure they are used safely and effectively. The study by Kukreja and Kernawat (2022) talked about how cloud computing has changed theoil and gas industry and how companies need to adapt to this new technology in order to staycompetitive. The industry looked into cloud technologies because they could lower the cost ofinfrastructure, make data easier to access, and make operations more flexible. Companiesrealized that cloud computing could be a better and more scalable option as their old ITinfrastructures got harder to manage and cost more to keep up. A full analysis of the current state of IT in the oil and gas sector was done to find out theproblems with old systems and the possible benefits of moving to the cloud. This includedlooking at the economic benefits of cloud computing, such as lower costs through economies ofscale, better use of resources, and the ability to provide IT resources only when they are needed.According to the study, cloud computing could make it easier for teams to work together,especially those that are in different places, because it gives everyone access to business apps73
anddata.One of the most important things that this research showed was that cloud computing couldmake operations and decision-making much more efficient in the industry. Companies thatswitched to cloud-based systems said they were better at managing data, doing analytics in realtime, and being able to respond quickly to changes in the market. The study also showed howimportant security is when using the cloud, especially when it comes to private information andtrade secrets. People and businesses started to understand that the risks of cloud computing couldbe reduced by using strong security measures like encryption and strict access controls. These discoveries are important because they could change the oil and gas industry in a big waythanks to cloud computing. Companies can not only make their operations run more smoothly byusing cloud technologies, but they can also encourage new ideas and help them adapt to a marketthat is changing quickly. Being able to access and analyze huge amounts of data in real time canhelp people make better decisions, which can lead to better business results.But (Kukreja and Kernawat, 2022) also found some gaps that need to be looked into further. Onebig worry is that some businesses aren't fully adopting cloud solutions because they're afraid ofsecurity risks and the difficulty of moving old systems to the cloud. More in-depth research isalso needed to find out how using the cloud will change the culture of an organization and theway employees work in the long term. For implementation to go smoothly, it's important toknow how cloud technologies can be added to current processes without causing problems. In general, looking into cloud computing in the oil and gas industry has led to useful discoveriesand big steps forward. However, more research is needed to solve the problems and fill in thegaps that have been found. As the industry changes, incorporating cloud technologies will bevery important in determining its future. This is why it is important for businesses to stay up to74
dateandflexible.As people become more aware of the energy crisis in the 21st century, a lot of research has beendone on how to store and transport oil and gas and use Geographic Information System (GIS)technology. Look into how cloud computing and GIS can be used together with the Internet ofThings (IoT) to make managing and keeping an eye on the safety of oil and gas productionsystems better (Wang, 2022). The study was prompted by the need for more reliable and efficientways to manage information in a world where energy sources are running out and environmentalconcerns are growing. In addition to traditional AI systems and sensor networks, the study suggested a new way tomanage information that would use IoT technology. The researchers worked hard to create awell-organized database of geographic information that would make it easier to look at the pathsthat tubing is laid, which is very important for making oil and gas transportation more efficient.The method involved putting together GIS technology and database programming to make astrong framework that could handle the complicated logistics of oil and gas. Using D-InSAR (Differential Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar) and GIS technology,Wang et al. (2022) made important discoveries about how underground mining activities changethe surface. This method made it possible to find illegal mining operations and figure out howthey affected the environment in mining areas. The results showed that areas with lower indexvalues were more likely to be hurt by mining, while areas with higher index values were notaffected as much. This discovery showed how important it is to use spatial analysis to understandhow resource extraction affects the environment. What makes these results important is that they could lead to better management in the oil andgas sector. By using IoT and GIS to collect and analyze real-time data, the proposed system75
could help people make better decisions, keep an eye on safety better, and make it easier to setoff early warning systems for possible dangers.The research underscored the necessity formultidisciplinary integration and intelligent production methods to address the challenges posedby the energy crisis.However, (Wang, 2022) study also acknowledged several gaps in the research. Despite theadvancements in technology, there remain unresolved issues related to the harmonization ofscientific progress with environmental sustainability. The article pointed out that while manystudies have been conducted, there is still a need for further exploration of the ideologies andsocial values associated with linguistic variations among Arabic speakers, as well as the broaderimplications of technological advancements on ecological balance.2.13The research Gap.Most of the related literature in cloud-based monitoring systems are focused in themanufacturing, medical and some areas of the utility industries like water supply. The leaseautomatic custody transfer system with parameters that are supposed to be monitored bydifferent stakeholders during off-take to tankers and pipe lines requires cloud-based monitoringsystem to save cost and enhance personnel safety. Therefore, this research is to bridge the long-awaited gap where breakthroughs in the information systems and communication technologies isapplied to the oil and gas metering system to save cost of production and prevent a certain groupof personnel from hazard exposure especially in Rumuekpe-Port Harcourt, Nigeria.76
CHAPTER THREEMETHODOLOGYThe methoddeployed to actualise the research aim and objective of remote monitoring of LACT-unit parameters started with a visit to an existing LACT-unit in Rumuekpe, Port Harcourt, Riversstate, Nigeria. This LACT-unit is owned and operated by Total Energies. During the multiplevisits, data of the parameters regularly monitored during off-take to tankers were collected.These data were analysed and virtual sensors developed to go through sensor nodes, the data wastransmitted to the cloud via an algorithm developed for this purpose and the transmitted data wasreceived at the Thinkspeak interface designed for receiving such data. The entire system wasimplemented, simulated and system validation was achieved.3.1. System Flow chart.Figure 3.1 shows the high-level block diagram (Flow chat) of the method adopted to achieve theobjectives of this research. 77
Figure 3.1: System’s high level block diagram (Flow chart)78Collect existing Data from LACT unitAnalyze the data using EXCELDevelop Virtual Sensor for emulation of the LACT dataDesign a virtual sensor node for transmission of the dataDevelop algorithms for transmitting the data to the cloudConfigure ThingSpeak interface for receiving the data at the cloudSimulate and implement the entire systemValidate the systemEndStart
3.2. Collection of data from Rumuekpe LACT-unit, Port Harcourt.Data collection was done at Rumuekpe Lease automatic custody transfer unit, own and operatedby Total Energies, an oil and gas exploration and production company in Nigeria. Data essentialfor hydrocarbon measurement which is closely monitored by operators and other stake holderswere gathered. The data recorded were flowrates, pressure, Temperature, API gravity andpercentage of sediment and water (% S & W). This data was taken at an interval of three hoursduring offload to pipe lines. Five entries were made every day for a period of ten days in onemonth and the activity lasted for four months. Total of Two Hundred entries for flow rate,pressure, temperature, API gravity and percentage of sediment and water were made. Thesummary of the data collected from Rumuekpe LACT-unit between August to November, 2023is as shown in table 3.1 in Appendix B. Figure 3.1a below shows some of the points in theLACT-unit where these parameters were collected from.3.2.1Analysis of LACT Data Collected from Rumuekpe LACT Unit, Port HarcourtTable 3.1 in Appendix B shows the summary of data collected from Rumuekpe LACT Unit,Total Energies, Port Harcourt Rivers State Nigeria. The preliminary data analysis was carried outwith a Microsoft excel application and it goes as shown below;Let the minimum flow rate by design be MinFR. From table 3.1, MinFR is a constant. SoMinFR=1003.1Similarly, the maximum flow rate, MaxFR=10003.279
The minimum value of the current operating flow rate is 549 bbl/hr while the maximum value is680 bbl/hr. The average flow rate is 596.205 bbl/hr. An excel application was used to analyzehow the current flow rates are distributed around the average flow rate. This is shown in a plot offlow rates against the various current operating flow rate. Figure 3.2 in Appendix F, shows thescatter plot of current operating flow rates from Rumuekpe LACT-unit during the design ofCloud-base monitoring of LACT-unit parameters. The minimum pressure by design MinPis 0 psi while the maximum pressure MaxPis 300psi.ThusMinP=03.3MaxP=3003.4The minimum value of the current operating pressure is 75.2 psi while the maximum value is76.8 psi. The average pressure is 76.0695 psi. An excel application was used to analyze how thecurrent operating pressure is distributed around the average pressure. This is shown in a plot ofpressure against the various current operating pressures. Figure 3.3 in Appendix F, shows thescatter plot of current operating pressure from Rumuekpe LACT-unit during the design ofCloud-base monitoring of LACT-unit parameters. 80
Figure 3.1a: Line diagram for a typical LACT-unit.81
The minimum temperature by design MinTis 0 °F while the maximum temperature MaxTis 300°F. ThusMinT=03.5MaxT=3003.6The minimum value of the current operating Temperature is 91.2 °F while the maximum value is93.5.2 °F. The average temperature is 92.322°F. An excel application was used to analyze howthe current operating temperatures are distributed around the average operating temperature. Thisis shown in a plot of temperature values against the various current operating temperatures.Figure 3.4 in Appendix F, shows the scatter plot of current operating temperature fromRumuekpe LACT-unit during the design of Cloud-base monitoring of LACT-unit parameters. The minimum API gravity at 60 °F is 43.5 while the maximum value is 45.8. The average valueis 43.788. An excel application was used to analyze how the current operating API gravity aredistributed around the average API gravity. This is shown in a plot of API gravity value againstthe various current operating API gravities. Figure 3.5 in Appendix F, shows the line plot of APIgravity at 60 °F from Rumuekpe LACT-unit during the design of Cloud-base monitoring ofLACT-unit parameters. Percentage of basic sediment and water (BS&W) is a constant, and is equal to 0.05. Figure 3.6 inAppendix F, shows the scatter plot of BS&W performed with excel application.82
3.3 Design of Virtual Sensors for Emulation of LACT Data Parameters.In order to develop and deploy a cloud-based monitoring LACT unit, there is need to developvirtual sensors that would emulate the data parameters of table 3.1 in Appendix B. These sensorswould help in carrying out factory acceptance test (FACT) before the physical deployment of thecloud solution.3.3.1 Industry Standard for SensorsThe basic requirement for calibration of industrial sensors is that it must be within the scale of 4mA to 20mA. Basically, the sensors are designed to have output of 4mA as the minimum value and 20mA as the maximum value (Keyence, 2023). It means that virtually, industrial sensors can be characterized as current source with output range of 4mA to 20mA. Now the microcontroller to be used in the simulation accepts maximum analog input of 5V dc. Given that V=IR by ohm’s law where R is the input impedance to the controller and I is the current from the sensor, it means that at constant R, VI=R3.7At 5V and current of 20mA, R=5/0.02= 250 ohms.the voltage equivalent of 4mA is 0.004∗250=1V83
So, the equivalent standard reading of the emulated sensor should be 1V to 5V. Table 3.2represents the characterization of sensors to be used in the emulation of sensors that generatedthe LACT data parameters.Table 3.2: characterization of virtual sensorsParameterStandardCurrent RangeRequired ParameterRangeDesigned Voltageoutput rangeFlow rate sensor4mA – 20 mA100bbl/hr – 1000bbl/hr1v – 5vPressure sensor4mA – 20 mA0 psi – 300 psi1v -5vTemperature sensor4mA – 20 mA0 °F – 300 °F1v -5vAPI gravity sensor4mA – 20 mA43.5 – 45.81v -5v84
The analog to digital converter (ADC) resident in the microcontroller is 10bits. It means it has aresolution of 10 bits which implies that the smallest increment that can be detected by thecontroller is 1/210= 0.00098V. This is approximately 0.001vMatlab file (mfile) shown in figure 3.7 was created to discretize the range of values of thesensors characterized in table 3.2. Matlab curve fitting tool was used to generate thecorresponding linear regression models of the graphs resulting from figure 3.7 as shown infigures 3.8 to 3.1185
Figure 3.7: Mfile for discretization of the sensor valuesFigure 3.12: High level description of IoT layer86The physical layerThe perception layerNetwork layerCloud layer
3.3.2 Linear Regression Models for the Selected LACT Unit ParametersFrom the analysis done in section 3.3.1, the following equations represent the regression modelsof virtual sensors for the selected LACT unit parameters. The linear regression models areequations generated from the plot of the parameters (flow rates, pressure, temperature, APIgravity and % of BS &W) against the sensor outputs in volts. They were produced from theMatlab file (mfile) shown in figure 3.7. Matlab curve filling tools were used to generate thecorresponding linear regression models of graphs resulting in figure 3.7 as shown in figure 3.8 tofigure 3.11 in appendix F. However, these models are the mathematical representation of thephysical parameters. The regression models are:Pressure=75∗V−75+ e13.7FlowRate=225∗V−125+ e23.8Temperature=75∗V−75+ e33.9APIgravity=75∗V−75+ e43.10V is the voltage output of the sensors while e is the regression error 3.4 Design of the Virtual Physical-Perception-Network PPN Layer for the LACT unit Transmission to the Cloud3.4.1 The Architecture of the PPN layerIoT architecture essentially contains the physical layer, the perception layer, the network layerand the cloud layer (Mbonu and Paul, 2023) as shown in figure 3.1287
The physical layer represents the physical infrastructure (PI) under monitoring, in this caseRumuekpe LACT unit. Sensors are usually mounted on the PI. So, in this work, the virtualsensors shall represent the PI.The perception layer represents the sensor node used to acquire and process sensor data from thePI. Atmega 328 microcontroller resident in Arduino board shall be used to represent theperception layer in this work. This is because it contains internal ADCs that can be used toprocess analog signals into digital equivalent before transmitting them to the network layer.The network layer is the bridge between the perception layer and the cloud layer. Any devicethat has capability of transmitting data can be used provided it is compatible with the chosenmicrocontroller. SIM 808 is used in this work as the network layer because it is compatible withthe chosen microcontroller. Figure 3.13 shows the picture of sim808 used in this work.The cloud layer displays the transmitted data. ThingSpeak is used in this work because it ispurely designed for prototyping of IoT concept, so it is cost effective. ThingSpeak is a third-party cloud resource developed by MATHWORKS for prototyping of IoT concepts.Figure 3.14 shows the virtual PPN layer designed for cloud-based transmission of the LACT unitparameters. The design was done using proteus professional software88
Figure 3.13: sim 808Figure 3.14: Design of PPN layer for the LACT unit89
3.4.2 Characterization of the PPN Layer for LACT UnitTable 3.3 shows the pin mapping of the input and output devices connected to the virtual LACT unit.Equation 3.7 and table 3.2 were used to characterize the sensors as shown in figures 3.15a and3.15b. Figure 3.16a shows the characterization of the internal display while figure 3.16b showsthat of the virtual sim80890
Table 3.3: Pin mapping of the LACT unitINPUT DEVICESDEVICEMICROCONTROLLERPINPressure sensorA0 (Analog input 0)Flowrate SensorA1 (Analog input 1)Temperature SensorA2 (Analog input 2)APIGravityA3 (Analog input 3)OUTPUT DEVICESInternalDisplay(RXD)D9 (Digital Output 9)InternalDisplay(TXD)D9 (Digital Output 8)Virtualsim808(RXD)D0 (Digital Output 0)Virtualsim808(TXD)D1 (Digital Output 1)91
Figure 3.15a: Characterization of Resistor values of the virtual sensorFigure 3.15b: Initial characterization of current sources of the virtual sensor92
Figure 3.16a: Characterization of the internal displayFigure 3.15a: Characterization the virtual sim 80893
3.5 Software/ algorithm Development for transmission of data to the cloud.Three algorithms are considered here: Virtual PPN Layer Characterization Algorithm; SensorAlgorithm and Data transmission to Remote Server Algorithm 3.5.1 Virtual PPN Layer Characterization AlgorithmThis is used to map the physical devices connected to the microcontrollers to the internalsoftware.Input: Virtual PPN layer physical addresses, pin numbers, and data typeOutput: mode classification ofVirtual PPN layer physical addresses, pin numbers, range of data3.5.2 Sensor Reading AlgorithmInput: Sensor Physical addressOutput: sensor real data value3.5.3 Data transmission to Remote Server AlgorithmInput: AT command of SIM80/GPRS modem, APN, and API address of the remote server,measured LACT unit parametersOutput: concatenated data comprising pressure, flow rate, temperature, APIgravity and % S&WThe algorithms of 3.6.1 to 3.6.3 were developed using embedded c language in Arduino IDE.The full software is shown in appendix A94
3.6 Design of ThingSpeak Server for online Logging of LACT Unit DataThird party cloud resource server, ThingSpeak, was used to logged the data transmitted from thevirtual LACT unit. The graphical user interface of the server was designed to be suitable for thiswork. Figure 3.17 shows the blank page of the user interface as opened on the ThingSpeak cloudplatform. Figure 3.18 shows the creation of data fields for data collection and logging. The fieldswere created according to the parameters of the LACT unit. Figure 3.19 is the output graphicaluser interface before sending data to the server.95
Fig. 3.17: blank channel at ThingSpeak platform96
Fig. 3.18: Data base fields for data collectionFig. 3.19: The ThingSpeak GUI for the LACT unit data monitoring97
2.8Simulation and implementation (System Testing)The system simulation and implementation were achieved by combining the efficacy of proteusprofessional software and Arduino integration Development Environment (IDE). This was madepossible by performing the design of the virtual physical-perception network (PPN) at theArduino integration development environment and performing the implementation andsimulation using proteus professional software.During system testing, the following steps were taking to test the entire system:1.Connect the external sim808 device to the USB port of the computer2.Select the comport assign to the sim808 by the computer and make it the comport of thevirtual sim8083.Compile the software of appendix and upload it to the microcontroller4.Run the system and record the test results according to table 3.4Figures 3.20 to 3.22 shows the selected snap shots of the system during testing. From table 3.4,the average errors between the regression models of equations 3.7 to 3.10 and the practical testresults with respect to pressure, flow rate, temperature and API gravity are 0.183psi, 0.55 bbl/hr,0.183 °F and 0 @ 60 °F respectively. It means that equations 3.7 to 3.10 can now be written asPressure=75∗V−75−0.1833.11FlowRate=225∗V−125- 0.553.12Temperature=75∗V−75– 0.1833.13APIgravity=75∗V−75+ 03.1498
Rearranging, it impliesThatV=(Pressure+75.183)/753.15V=(FlowRate+125.55)/2253.16V=(Temperature+75.183)/753.17V=(APIgravity+75)/753.18By implication alsoCurrent II=Pressure+75.18375∗2503.19I=FlowRate+125.55225∗2503.20I=Temperature+75.18375∗2503.21I=APIgravity+7575∗2503.223.8 Validation of system DataFrom equation 3.19 to 3.22, the source current to be applied to the sensor nodes for better outputat the cloud have been calibrated. This means, substituting the values of the unit parametersprovided from the physical LACT unit as shown in table 3.1, with the equivalent values of99
source currents (as calibrated with the error values) needed to validate the cloud based LACTmonitoring system. Table 3.5 in appendix ‘D’ shows the validated data generated.100
Figure 3.20: System testing at current source = 4mAFigure 3.21: System testing at current source = 8mA101
CHAPTER 4RESULTS AND DISCUSSION4.1Description of ResultsAfter system testing was carried out in chapter 3, and the errors of the modelled equation weresubstituted with constants gotten from system testing, the current sensor values of table 3.5 wereused to characterized figure 3.14 while simulating the system to send data to the cloud. 100samples were taken in allFigure 4.1 shows the ThingSpeak cloud interface after sending the data. Figure 4.1a shows thepressure and flow rate data while figure 4.1b shows temperature and API gravity data. %SW datais shown in figure 4.1c. Table 4.1 in Appendix D shows the stored excel data downloaded fromthe ThingSpeak server while figures 4.2 to 4.6 shows the plots of the downloaded data.102
Figure 4.1a: Pressure and Flow rate cloud dataFigure 4.1b: Temperature and APIgravity data103
Figure 4.1 c: % SW1591317212529333741454953576165697377818589939774.57575.57676.57777.5field1 SAMPLEPRESSURE, psiFigure 4.2: Plot of LACT pressure data received at the cloud104
159131721252933374145495357616569737781858993970100200300400500600700800field2SAMPLEFlow rate, bbl/hrFigure 4.3: Plot of LACT flow rate data received at the cloud159131721252933374145495357616569737781858993979091929394field3SAMPLETemperature, degFFigure 4.4: Plot of LACT temperature data received at the cloud105
159131721252933374145495357616569737781858993974242.54343.54444.54545.546field4SAMPLEAPIgravityFigure 4.5: Plot of LACT APIgravity data received at the cloud1591317212529333741454953576165697377818589939700.010.020.030.040.050.06field5SAMPLE% swFigure 4.6: Plot of LACT %S & W data received at the cloud106
4.2Discussion on ResultsIt can be observed that the time stamp of the data collected uploaded from the system design offigure 3.14 is recorded by the cloud server. The time stamp of each data can also be seen onlineby pointing computer mouse at the specific data shown in figure 4.7. It means that the time ofany abnormality that took place in the LACT unit can be estimated if the network transmissiondelay time is known. By observing the pattern of the graph, trained maintenance personnel canalways detect unusual data pattern. Table 4.2 summarized the minimum, maximum and average values of the LACT data receivedboth from the cloud and physical units. Comparison of plots of LACT data collected from thephysical LACT unit (PLACTunit) Rumuekpe, Port Harcourt (figures 3.2 to 3.6) and that of thecloud (figures 4.2 to 4.6) shows that they follow similar patterns confirming the integrity of thedesigned cloud-based monitoring system.107
Figure 3.2 and 4.3: Plot of physical LACT compared to LACT flow rate data received at thecloudFigure 3.3 and 4.2: scatter plot of physical-LACT for current operating pressure compared tocloud-LACT108
Figure 3.4 and 4.4: scatter Plot of physical-LACT temperature compared to data received at thecloudFigure 4.7: Specific chart shows the details of the datum selected109
However, figure 4.2 to 4.6 represent plot of the LACT pressure data, plot of LACT flow ratedata, plot of LACT temperature, plot of LACT API gravity and plot of LACT % of S & W datarespectively, as it is received and displayed at the cloud. The Y-axis show how the parametersvary from the minimum value to the maximum value while the X-axis represent the selectedsample of parameters for pressure, flow rate, temperature, API gravity and percentage ofsediment and water. Figure 4.6 in particular is a straight line which did not vary in the Y-axis.This shows that the value for percentage of sediment and water is a constant.In the other hand, figure 4.7 is a specific chart for pressure and flow rate generated from theThingSpeak platform which shows the details of every datum selected. At the ThingSpeakplatform, if the computer cursor is pointed at a datum on this specific chart, it will display thevalue of the variable and its unit, the date and time at which the value was recorded.From table 4.2, the average error in pressure reading is 0.259psi, and it represents 0.34% errorwith respect to the original data from the PLACT unit. That of flow rate is 0.013% while that oftemperature is 0.09% even as API-gravity readings average error of 0.014%. There is no errorrecorded for % SW. On the whole, it can be said that the cloud-based monitoring system designed in this work acceptably represented the LACT PHYSICAL UNIT!110
Table 4.2: Statistical analysis of the data collected from the cloud and the LACT Physical UnitLACT ParameterMinimum ValueMaximum ValueAverage valueDATA FROM THE CLOUD BASED LACT UNITPressure (psi)75.677.676.313Flow Rate (bbl/hr)549.9680.9595.75Temperature (° F)91.2593.5592.376APIgravity @ 60 ° F43.545.843.785DATA FROM THE PHYSICAL LACT UNITPressure (psi)75.677.676.054Flow Rate (bbl/hr)595.829680.9595.830Temperature (° F)91.2593.5592.293APIgravity @ 60 ° F43.545.843.791111
CHAPTER 5SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION5.1The SummaryThe research topic (Cloud-Based Monitoring of Lease Automatic custody Transfer parameters)which is an improvement to the existing method of monitoring LACT-unit parameter, wasinformed by the prevailing rise in the cost of production for hydrocarbon products in Nigeria.The study was based on data collected from Rumuekpe LACT-unit in Port Harcourt, Riversstate, own by Total Energies. The specific data collected from the LACT-unit includes:Minimum, current operating, and maximum flow rates (in bbl /hr)Minimum, current operating, and maximum pressure values (in Psi)Minimum, current operating, and maximum temperature values (in °F)API gravity reading at 60 °F and Percentage of basic sediment and water (BS & W).An insight to the flow rates shows; 549 bbl/hr, 680 bbl/hr and 596.205 bbl/hr for an example asthe minimum, maximum, and average flow rates respectively while that of pressure valuesranges from a minimum of 75.2 Psi to a maximum of 76.8 Psi, with an average pressure value of76.0695 Psi. The significance of the average flow and pressure rates lies in their role inmonitoring the operational efficiency, anomaly detection and system integrity of the LACT-unit.The average flow rate provides insight into the typical throughput of the system, which is crucialfor operational planning and resource management. In the same vein, the system’s pressureindicates the system performance and can help identify any anomalies or inefficiencies in thesystem. Therefore, consistent monitoring of these parameters allows for timely maintenance and112
ensure the reliability of the LACT-unit, ultimately contributing to better management ofresources and reduced operational risks and cost.The software tool used in the development of Cloud-based monitoring of LACT-unit parametersincludes;1.MATLAB: Utilized for the data analysis and algorithm development.2.Excel: employed for data organization and preliminary analysis.3.Arduino integration development environment (IDE): Used for programming themicrocontroller that interfaced with the LACT-unit.4.Proteus Professional software: This software was applied for simulating the electroniccircuit and systems.5.ThinkSpeak cloud resources:Implemented for online data logging and visualization ofthe LACT unit parameters.6.IoT Data transmission gateway (SIM 808):used for transmitting data from the LACT-unit to the cloud.These tools collectively facilitated the design, implementation, testing, validation, andmonitoring of Cloud-based system, ensuring effective data collection and analysis.Data analysis with a MATHLAB software, that can be seen as discretization of sensor values,after consideration was given to the basic requirements for the calibration of industrial sensorsgave rise to the linear regression models for flow rates, pressure, temperature, API gravity, andpercentage of basic sediment and water (BS &W) as shown below:Pressure=75∗V−75+ e13.7113
FlowRate=225∗V−125+ e23.8Temperature=75∗V−75+ e33.9APIgravity=75∗V−75+ e43.10Where V was the voltage of transmission for the sensors and e1 to e4 represented the unknownerrors associated with the transmission.However, system testing and validation enabled the study to summarized the average errors tobe; 0.183 psi for e1, 0.55 bbl/hr for e2, 0.183 °F for e3 and 0 for e4. So, substituting the errorvalues in the respective equations produced the optimized equations which is a mathematicalrepresentation of the variables at the LACT-unit. The optimized equations are as show below;Pressure=75∗V−75−0.1833.11FlowRate=225∗V−125- 0.553.12Temperature=75∗V−75– 0.1833.13APIgravity=75∗V−75+ 03.14Finally, the equation validation and calibrations, made it possible to have the same parameters atthe physical LACT-unit (PLACT) and Cloud LACT-unit (CLACT). Which means, the LACT-unit parameters can be monitored in real time, and technical, preventive maintenance andcorrective maintenance decisions can be made through this system.5.2Conclusion114
The objective of this research was to implement a low cost near real-time cloud-basedmonitoring of Lease Automatic Custody Transfer (LACT) unit parameter through five definedresearch objectives. The proposed solution has been able to meet the five defined objectivesthough, further studies may review some challenges like network security treat, cloud cost andability to track workload performance.5.3Recommendation1.Cloud-based monitoring of lease automatic custody transfer parameters is an importanttool and should be recommended for use especially in Nigeria. It will help minimize oil theft,improve tracking and monitoring of quality and quantity of hydrocarbon products, reduce riskassociated with data lose and occupational hazards. 2.I recommend cloud-based monitoring of lease automatic custody transfer parameters forfurther studies for students of measurement, instrumentation and communication engineering. 3.This study did not consider what will happen when multiple LACT-units are connected tothe same platform and what will happen to the monitoring system when there is an internetbreakdown. Therefore, the scope can be expanded for further studies to ascertain real cloud cost,appropriate network security treat and work load performance.4.Gathering of user feedback shall be encouraged to enhance continuous improvement ofthe system. This will help actualize the purpose of this study by ensuring it meets the evolvingoperational needs.115
5.Periodic calibration of sensors and devices are recommended to maintain accuracy andreliability in data collection.5.4Contribution to KnowledgeCloud-based Monitoring of Lease Automatic Custody Transfer (LACT) unit parameters hascontributed to knowledge in several key areas of focus. Below are some of the contributions thatcan enhance implementation and understanding in these areas of focus:1.Development of real time monitoring systems and data visualization. It has created aframe work that allows real time data collection from the LACT unit, integrating IoT sensorswith cloud platforms to enable continuous monitoring. It has also developed dash board thatprovides intuitive visual representation of LACT parameters, helping users quickly identifytrends and anomalies.2.It has created standardization of data protocols by way of parameter definitions. This wasachieved from creating a standardized list of LACT parameters like flow rate, pressure, andtemperature to ensuring consistency across different monitoring systems.3.Its developed and demonstrated compliance to industry regulation and standards,particularly in the oil and gas industry.4.Its has created an opportunity for training programs. This training programs shall containmodules for users to understand the functionalities of cloud-based monitoring systems, focusingon data interpretation and decision making based on monitored parameters.5.It has opened discussions for robust security protocols to protect sensitive datatransmitted from LACT unit to the cloud, including encryptions and access controls.116
5.5Limitations1.This study used virtual sensors to simulate real values to the cloud and cannot guaranteewhat will happen if physical sensors were to be used.2.ThingSpeak IoT cloud plat form that was used in this study is a free cloud platformdemonstrating IoT based research so, the actual cost of running cloud-based monitoring of leaseautomatic custody transfer parameters in a paid cloud platform is not established.3.This study did not consider the network security and the cost that may be associated to it.Nevertheless, further studies shall include these areas for better performance.117