Study Guide 4
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Turtle Mountain Community College**We aren't endorsed by this school
Course
PSYCHOLOGY 101
Subject
Psychology
Date
Dec 17, 2024
Pages
4
Uploaded by MinisterPolarBear4841
Intersection of biological psychology and behavioral psychologyReasons why biological psychology and behavioral psychology can provide complementary explanations of behavior:Behavior may be a product of biology, or environmental influences. Genes sometimes ensure that certain behaviors will occur under specific conditions (unconditioned responses). Genes create limits on what behaviors are possible (pigs cannot fly).How shaping is akin to natural selection:Genes are akin to establishing operations, like food deprivation. Genes are providing theparticular conditions (making something a reinforcer or not). Regardless of what the particulars are, the process of operant conditioning is still important, it is just how operant conditioning is going to be achieved from one species to another. Biological constraints on classical conditioning:There is evidence in classical conditioning that biology serves to make certain types of conditioning work more efficiently than other types of conditioning (preparedness). Species maybe prepared to associate certain stimuli with unconditioned stimuli & not prepared to associate other types of stimuli with unconditioned stimuli. In other words, certain forms of classical conditioning are easier to achieve than others. Garcia & Koelling: Group 1 (rats)- Bright light, noisy background, sweet waterstomach sickness No CR, Sweet waterCR, Group 2- Brightlight, noisy background, sweet waterelectric shock. Bright light, noisy background, sweet waterCR, Sweet waterNo CR. Wilcoxon: Quail- dark blue, sour waterstomach sickness, rats- dark blue, sour waterstomach sickness. Results- Chief CS for quail: dark blue water, rats:sour water. Importance of contiguity: an important independent variable classical conditioning-it seems unlikely that learning can take place at all with delays of more than a few seconds. Disproved the equipotentiality premise- with the rats they were able to form associations & had taste aversion. Taste aversion violates the principle of contiguity. Biological constraints on operant conditioning:Instinctive drift- the biological processes & instinctual behavior is interfering with & stronger than the learning process & is ultimately what determines how organisms will behave. What was seen by the Brelands was interference between two different types of learning processes- classical conditioning & operant conditioning. The operant component- subject has been trainedto pick up this token & bring it to the bank, deposit it & reinforced with food. Classical conditioning component- the wooden token, because it’s being paired with food (US) is turning into a conditioned stimulus & elicits a conditioned response.Adjunctive behavior- stereotyped behaviors that arise when food or some other reinforcer is delivered at regular intervals. Ex: Polydipsia- excessive drinking, pica- eating inedible objects, aggression, activity anorexia- rats have access to food for 1.5 hours/day and an exercise wheel for the remaining 22.5 hours. Result- rats spend increasing time exercising & decreasing time eating & a negative feedback loop can develop in which the rat eventually dies. Autoshaping defied the rules to operant conditioning, later it was suggested that it was an instance of classical conditioning. It is now widely being used for studying classical conditioning & now appears to be quite consistent with the general-principle approach to learning.
Intersection of cognitive psychology and behavioral psychology General differences in emphasis between behavioral psychology and cognitive psychology: Cognition- focus is on information processing, behavioral- focus is on behavioral function. How attention/awareness can be viewed as either a mental process or a form of operant behavior: Attending changes with learning. At first attending may be controlled by those stimuli that are most salient (noticeable). With experience, we learn to attend to those stimuli that are most predictive of reinforcement. Behavioral- attending occurs if/when it produces reinforcement (turning key in ignition- conscious awareness serves no function, looking for missing keys- consciously thinking about keys location increases the probability that the keys willbe found). Why each benefits from the other: cognitive- without referring to function, the field has trouble explaining the whys of cognition (whydoes conscious thought exist?). Behavioral- without referring to information processing, the field has trouble explaining how organisms behave in anadaptive way (howare subjects able to follow the matching law). Method and findings in the Tolman and Honzik latent learning experiment: They examined male learning in rats (3 groups) & looking at how the performance changed over a series of days & performance was measured in terms of errors the rats made. 1 group has no reward for getting to the end- just removed from the maze and returned to the cage (learned by made most errors) & 1 group rewarded at the end (started out as making less errors), 1 group not rewarded until day 11 (Started out making many errors & after they had experienced food they showed a dramatic improvement in performance. Made even fewer errors than the group regularly rewarded). Tolman started out in behavioral research & found that reinforcement is not necessary for learning to occur, and instead pioneered cognitive psychology. He came to conclusion that learning is about how we process information about how we learn what leads towhat. Decided because of 3rdgroup- that amount of learning did not take place in a single day & had to have been learning all along even when food reinforcement wasn’t present, but incentives changed after day 11 & had taken advantage of learning that they had accomplished. Findings were not definitive- the subject is attending to the layout of the maze. Attending occursbecause it has been broadly reinforced in the past. Other hidden reinforcers may also be present (getting to the end of the maze allows the subject to return to its home cage).Comparative cognitionMatching-to-sample- subjects are shown a stimulus set. Responding to the key that matches themiddle stimulus produces reinforcement. Delayed matching-to-sample- subjects are shown a sample stimulus, then there is a delay (all keys are dark), finally subjects are reinforced for selecting the stimulus that matches the sample. (Tests memory). Symbolic matching-to-sample- the stimulus and S+ are not identical. Instead the sample stimulus (red cross) indicates which other symbol (blue key) in the S+. Stimulus equivalence- procedures test for the transfer of associative learning from one stimulus relationship to another. Herrnstein’s procedure for examining concept formation in nonhumans: Presented pigeons withpictures. Pictures of trees presented a reinforcement (S+) & pictures of non-trees did not (S-). Toshow that subjects did not memorize the images, subjects are tested with novel images. Subjects demonstrate concept formation by continuing to respond only to pictures of trees.
How behaviorists interpret concepts: a “concept” is a class of stimuli. Generalization occurs within the class. Discrimination occurs between classes. LanguageHow language can be described in terms of three-term contingencies: Language is behavior. It includes Discriminative stimulus (SD), response (R), and consequences of those responses (SR±). Ex: you read a novel about a young woman growing up in NYC. (Covert): the novel (SD)>Reading (R)> Entertainment/ Information (SR+). (Overt): You see your friend (SD) & ask how’s it going? (R). Your friend responds ok (SR). Him: How’s it going? (SD)ok (R)(maintains social connection (SR+), avoids seeming like a jerk: (SR-). Rule-governed behavior: antithesis of contingency-shaped behavior, or behavior that is controlled by direct-experience (trial & error learning). Different from contingency-shaped behavior because . Ex: you should go to Seattle on your next vacation, it’s a fun city. Seattlefun, Collegegood job. The rule is akin to and SD, and we follow the rule because in the past rule-following has been reinforced. Rules are acquired via language (what we are told, read about, overhear, etc.) and via observational learning (what behaviors lead to what consequences). A particular rule is likely to be followed when information comes from important sources (parents) & it is true. Mother says don’t touch that it’s hot (and it’s hot).Language learning: course of language learning- 4-6 months: infants can recognize their names, after 6 months: babbling begins, 12 months: infants start to use words, 18-24 months: toddlers combine 2 or 3 words into simple sentences. Why language learning is a product of cognitive processes vs. behavioral processes: cognitive- most children learn to speak about the same time; learning a language later in life is quite difficult. This suggests that there is a critical period for development. Children appear to be sensitive to syntax and to the core properties of language (use past tense without instruction); suggests that people possess a language acquisition device. Vs. does the rapidity of language learning in young children reflect biological priming or the relative potency of the reinforcers? Is the statement “I eated it” a reflection of a language acquisition device or stimulus generalization? Babbling sounds that are closest to the sounds of the parent’s language are reinforced. “shaping” helps turn these sounds into speech. Hart & Risley: longitudinal study of language development- followed 42 families. At the beginning of the study, each family had a child 12 months of age. The study ended when the children reached 36 months. The children included 23 girls and 19 boys. The families represented a variety of socioeconomic backgrounds (13 professional, 23 working-class, 6 welfare). The families also included blacks, whites, and latinos. Once a month, the children were observed in their home environment. The researchers recorded everything the child said and everything that was said to the child. Special attention was given to the amount of interaction between parent and child, and the number of words spoken to the child. What was found- (interaction) high SES: 30-40 min/hr, middle: 20-30 min/hr, welfare: 15-25 min/hr., (parent’s spoke) high: 400-500 words/hr more positive, middle: 150-500 words/hr, welfare: 75-400 words/hr. more negative. (Total words spoken) high: 35 million words, middle: 20 million words,10 million words. Child’s vocab at 36 months: high: 1100 words, middle: 750 words, welfare: 750words, welfare: 525 words. Behaviorism:
Basic tenants: heavy reliance on animal subjects & emphasis on external events (environmental stimuli and overt behaviors), and a reluctance to speculate about processes inside the organism.Skinner: behavior is determined by both learning experiences & heredity. Classical conditioning: Starts with one or two new stimulus (bell or food) which will be associated with another stimulus (food)- both are measureable & controllable. The association can also be measured in the salivation that the dog produces. The dog was restrained, a tube ran down to a container from the mouth which measured saliva & a pen and cylinder recording time & amount, while Pavlov presented the bowl of dried meat powder.Unconditioned Stimulus (US): A stimulus (unlearned/innate) that naturally elicits a specific response. Ex: presence of food in the dog’s mouth.Unconditioned Response (UR): Response to an unconditioned stimulus. Ex: Secretion of saliva.Conditioned Stimulus (CS): Any stimulus that does not evoke the unconditioned response. Ex: a bell.Conditioned Response (CR): The response that is elicited by a conditioned stimulus after classical conditioning has taken place. Ex: Any salivating that occurs during the conditioned stimulus (bell) but before the unconditioned stimulus (food)Reinforcement vs. Punishment- behavior is increased after stimulus vs. behavior is decreasedPositive vs. Negative Reinforcement- A stimulus is presented & a behavior is increased/ maintained vs. A stimulus is removed & a behavior is increased/maintained. Schedules of reinforcementFixed ratio- reinforcement is delivered after every nth responseVariable ratio- reinforcement is delivered on average after every nth response Fixed interval- the first response after nth time is reinforcedVariable interval- the first response after, on average, nth time is reinforcedExtinction The weakening of the CR. The effects of the prior learning are still evident even after extinction is completedAs long as the US is not reintroduced extinction will occur again. Moreover, extinction occurs more rapidly