DEMO - Passer, Psychology Frontiers and Applications, 8ce (CDN)-highlights

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PS 1509
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Psychology
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Dec 17, 2024
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Highlights fromDEMO - Passer, Psychology Frontiers and Applications, 8ce (CDN)The Nature of Psychology9/10/23Psychology is the scientiff c study of behaviour and the mind. The term behaviour refers to actions and responses that we can directly observe, whereas the term mind refers to internal states and processes, such as thoughts and feelings, that cannot be seen directly and that must be inferred from observable, measurable responsesThe Nature of Psychology9/10/23Psychology is the scientiff c study of behaviour and the mind. The term behaviour refers to actions and responses that we can directly observe, whereas the term mind refers to internal states and processes, such as thoughts and feelings, that cannot be seen directly and that must be inferred from observable, measurable responses.The Nature of Psychology9/10/23An area within cognitive psychology, called psycholinguistics, focuses on the psychology of languageThe Nature of Psychology9/10/23psych ologists use various instruments (e.g., video recorders, questionnaires, brain-imaging devices) to objectively and precisely record people’s responses.The Nature of Psychology9/10/23clinical psychology : the study and treatment of mental disorders.The Nature of Psychology9/10/23cognitive psychology specializes in the study of mental processes, especially from a model that views the mind as an information processorThe Nature of Psychology9/10/23Experimental psychology focuses on such basic processes as learning, sensory systems (e.g., vision, hearing), perception, and motivational states (e.g., sexual motivation, hunger, thirst). Most research in this subff eld involves laboratory experiments, often with nonhuman animals.The Nature of Psychology9/10/23Note that topics studied in different subff elds often overlap.The Nature of Psychology9/10/23To avoid perceiving illusory correlations, psychologists typically use statistics to analyze their data. The Nature of Psychology9/10/23Science is a process that involves systematically gathering and evaluating empirical evidence to answer questions and test beliefs about the natural world. Empirical evidence is evidence gained through experience and observation, and this includes evidence from manipulating or “tinkering around” with things and then observing what happens1 of 99/13/23
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The Nature of Psychology9/10/23everyday observation usually is casual rather than systematic. Our own experiences also may be atypical and not representative of what most people experienceThe Nature of Psychology9/10/23We often take mental shortcuts when forming judgments—shortcuts that sometimes serve us poorlyThe Nature of Psychology9/10/23fail to consider alternative explanations for why a behaviour has occurred and assume that one factor has caused it, when in fact some less obvious factor was the true causeThe Nature of Psychology9/10/23conff rmation bias by selectively paying attention to information that is consistent with our beliefs and downplaying or ignoring information that is inconsistent with themThe Nature of Psychology9/10/23In principle, science ultimately is a self-correcting process. At any point in history, scientiff c knowledge represents a best estimate of how the world operates.The Nature of Psychology9/10/23evolution of knowledge called scientiff c progress.The Nature of Psychology9/10/23Critical thinking involves taking an active role in understanding the world around you rather than merely receiving information.The Nature of Psychology9/10/23What, exactly, is the claim or assertion?Who is making the claim? Is the source credible and trustworthy?What’s the evidence, and how good is it?Are other explanations possible? Can I evaluate them?What is the most appropriate conclusion?The Nature of Psychology9/10/23Oddly enough, it seems that thoseindividuals who trust science are more likely to be inff uenced by false claimscontaining “scientiff c” references.The Nature of Psychology9/10/23prediction can have important practical uses that do not require a complete understanding of why some behaviour occurs.The Nature of Psychology9/10/23basic research , the quest for knowledge purely for its own sake, and applied research , which is designed to solve speciff c practical problems.The Nature of Psychology9/10/23levels of analysis : Behaviour and its causes can be examined at the biological level (e.g., brain processes, genetic inff uences), the psychological level (e.g., our thoughts, feelings, and 2 of 99/13/23
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motives), and the environmental level (e.g., past and current physical and social environments to which we are exposed).The Nature of Psychology9/10/23mind–body interactions —the relations between mental processes in the brain and the functioning of other bodily systems.The Nature of Psychology9/10/23growing interest in cultural inff uences and advances in genetics and brain research keep the nature–nurture pendulum in a more balanced positionThe Nature of Psychology9/10/23Perhaps most important, modern research increasingly reveals that nature and nurture interact ( Bolhuis et al., 2021 ; Fox, 2017 ; Masterpasqua, 2009 ; Wang et al., 2019 ; Bolhuis et al., 2021 ). Just as our biological capacities affect how we behave and experience the world, our experiences inff uence our biological capacitiesPerspectives on Behaviour9/10/23different ways of viewing people, called perspectives , became part of psychology’s intellectual traditionsPerspectives on Behaviour9/10/23psychophysics, the study of how psychologically experienced sensations depend on the characteristics of physical stimuliPerspectives on Behaviour9/10/23Wundt and Titchener believed that the mind could be studied by breaking it down into its basic components, as a chemist might break down a complex chemical compound. Their approach came to be known as structuralism , the analysis of the mind in terms of its basic elements.Perspectives on Behaviour9/10/23mind–body dualism , the belief that the mind is a spiritual entity not subject to physical laws that govern the body.Perspectives on Behaviour9/10/23René Descartes (1596–1650) proposed that the mind and body interact through the brain’s tiny pineal gland. Although Descartes placed the mind within the brain, he maintained that the mind was a spiritual, nonmaterial entity. Dualism implies that no amount of research on the physical body (including the brain) could ever hope to unravel the mysteries of the nonphysical mind.Perspectives on Behaviour9/10/23monism (from the Greek word monos, meaning “one”), holds that mind and body are one and that the mind is not a separate spiritual entity.Perspectives on Behaviour9/10/23structuralists used the method of introspection (“looking within”) to study sensations, which they considered the basic elements of consciousnessPerspectives on Behaviour9/10/23British empiricism , which held that all ideas and knowledge are gained empirically—that is, 3 of 99/13/23
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through the senses. According to empiricists, observation is a more valid approach to knowledge than is pure reasonPerspectives on Behaviour9/10/23Freud eventually treated his patients by using a technique called free association, in which the patient expressed any thoughts that came to mind. To Freud’s surprise, patients eventually described painful and long-“forgotten” childhood experiences, often sexual in nature. After patients remembered and mentally “relived” these traumatic experiences, their symptoms often improved.Perspectives on Behaviour9/10/23structuralism eventually gave way to functionalism , which held that psychology should study the functions of consciousness rather than its structure.Perspectives on Behaviour9/10/23Although functionalism no longer exists as a school of thought within psychology, its tradition endures in two modern-day ff elds: cognitive psychology, which studies mental processes, and evolutionary psychology, which emphasizes the adaptiveness of behaviour.Perspectives on Behaviour9/10/23psychodynamic perspective searches for the causes of behaviour within the inner workings of our personality (our unique pattern of traits, emotions, and motives), emphasizing the role of unconscious processes. Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) developed the ff rst and most inff uential psychodynamic theoryPerspectives on Behaviour9/10/23psychoanalysis —the analysis of internal and primarily unconscious psychological forces. He also proposed that humans have powerful inborn sexual and aggressive drives and that because these desires are punished in childhood, we learn to fear them and become anxious when we are aware of their presence.Perspectives on Behaviour9/10/23Repression, a primary defence mechanism, protects us by keeping unacceptable impulses, feelings, and memories in the unconscious depths of the mind. All behaviour, whether normal or “abnormal,” reff ects a largely unconscious and inevitable conff ict between the defences and internal impulses. This ongoing psychological struggle between conff icting forces is dynamic in nature, hence the term psychodynamic.Perspectives on Behaviour9/10/23Modern psychodynamic theories continue to explore how unconscious and conscious aspects of personality inff uence behaviour ( Barber & Sharpless, 2015 ). However, they downplay the role of hidden sexual and aggressive motives and focus more on how early relationships with family members and other caregivers shape the views that people form of themselves and othersPerspectives on Behaviour9/10/23most contemporary psychological scientists reject Freud’s particular version of the unconscious mind, modern psychological research has identiff ed brain mechanisms that produce unconscious emotional reactions and has shown that many aspects of information processing occur outside of awareness4 of 99/13/23
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Perspectives on Behaviour9/10/23The behavioural perspective focuses on the role of the external environment in governing our actions.Perspectives on Behaviour9/10/23John Locke, at birth the human mind is a tabula rasa —a “blank tablet” or “slate”—upon which experiences are written.Perspectives on Behaviour9/10/23Pavlov (1849–1936) revealed how learning occurs when events are associated with each other.Perspectives on Behaviour9/10/23Thorndike (1874–1949) examined how organisms learn through the consequences of their actions. According to Thorndike’s ( 1911 ) law of effect, responses followed by satisfying consequences become more likely to recur, and those followed by unsatisfying consequences become less likely to recur. Thus, learning is the key to understanding how experience moulds behaviour.Perspectives on Behaviour9/10/23Behaviourism , a school of thought that emphasizes environmental control of behaviour through learningPerspectives on Behaviour9/10/23g , began to emerge in 1913. John B. Watson (1878–1958), who led the new movementPerspectives on Behaviour9/10/23Behaviourism , a school of thought that emphasizes environmental control of behaviour through learnin g , began to emerge in 1913. John B. Watson (1878–1958), who led the new movement , Perspectives on Behaviour9/10/23He argued that the proper subject matter of psychology was observable behaviour, not unobservable inner consciousness. Humans, he said, are products of the ir learning experiencesPerspectives on Behaviour9/10/23In the 1960s, behaviourism inspired powerful techniques known collectively as behaviour modiff cation . These techniques, aimed at decreasing problem behaviours and increasing positive behaviours by manipulating environmental factors, are still used widely todayPerspectives on Behaviour9/10/23In the 1960s, behaviourism inspired powerful techniques known collectively as behaviour modiff cation . These techniques, aimed at decreasing problem behaviours and increasing positive behaviours by manipulating environmental factors, are still used widely todayPerspectives on Behaviour9/10/23Bandura has always promoted the view that the environment exerts its effects on behaviour not by automatically “stamping in” or “stamping out” behaviours, as Watson or Skinner maintained, but rather by affecting our thoughts. In cognitive behaviourism , learning experiences and the environment affect our behaviour by giving us the information we need to behave effectivelyPerspectives on Behaviour9/10/235 of 99/13/23
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The humanistic perspective emphasized free will, personal growth, and the attempt to ff nd meaning in one’s existence.Perspectives on Behaviour9/10/23Instead, such humanistic theorists as Abraham Maslow (1908–1970) proposed that each of us has an inborn force toward self-actualization , the reaching of one’s individual potential ( Figure 1.12 ). When humans develop in a supportive environment, the positive inner nature of a person emerges. In contrast, misery and pathology occur when environments frustrate our innate tendency toward self-actualization.Perspectives on Behaviour9/10/23The cognitive perspective examines the nature of the mind and how mental processes inff uence behaviour. In this view, humans are information processors whose actions are governed by thought.Perspectives on Behaviour9/10/23Humanism’s focus on self-actualization and growth is seen in today’s growing positive psychology movement , which emphasizes the study of human strengths, fulff llment, and optimal livingPerspectives on Behaviour9/10/23Humanist Carl Rogers (1902–1987) identiff ed key aspects of psychotherapy that led to constructive changes in clients. Humanistic concepts also stimulated research on self-esteem and self-conceptPerspectives on Behaviour9/10/23German scientists had formed a school of thought known as Gestalt psychology , which examined how the mind organizes elements of experience into a uniff ed or “whole” perception (“Gestalt” roughly translates as “whole” or “organization”). They argued that perceptions are organized so that “the whole is greater than the sum of its parts.”Perspectives on Behaviour9/10/23On another front in the 1950s, behaviourists and linguists debated how children acquire language. The behaviourists, led by Skinner, claimed that language is acquired through basic principles of learning. The linguists, led by Noam Chomsky (b. 1928), argued that humans are biologically “preprogrammed” to acquire language and that children come to understand language as a set of “mental rules.” This heated debate convinced many psychologists that language was too complex to be explained by behavioural principles and instead needed to be examined from a cognitive perspective.Perspectives on Behaviour9/10/23Cognitive psychology, which focuses on the study of mental processes, embodies the cognitive perspective. Cognitive psychologists study the processes by which people reason, make decisions, solve problems, form perceptions, and produce and understand language.Perspectives on Behaviour9/10/23Cognitive neuroscience , which uses sophisticated electrical recording and brain-imaging techniques to examine brain activity while people engage in cognitive tasks, is a rapidly growing area that represents the intersection of cognitive psychology and the biological perspective 6 of 99/13/23
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within psychologyPerspectives on Behaviour9/10/23The sociocultural perspective examines how the social environment and cultural learning inff uence our behaviour, thoughts, and feelings.Perspectives on Behaviour9/10/23Intersecting the biological perspective (which we discuss next), social psychologists have increasingly examined the biological bases of social thinking and behaviour. For example, it appears that social pain, which can occur when people reject or ostracize us, shares many of the same brain circuits that underlie physical painPerspectives on Behaviour9/10/23Culture refers to the enduring values, beliefs, behaviours, and traditions that are shared by a large group of people and passed from one generation to the next. All cultural groups develop their own social norms , which are rules (often unwritten) that specify what behaviour is acceptable and expected for members of that group.Perspectives on Behaviour9/10/23Socialization is the process by which culture is transmitted to new members and internalized by them.Perspectives on Behaviour9/10/23Kenneth Clark (1914–2005) and Mamie Clark (1917–1983) and others, which examined how discrimination and prejudice inff uenced the personality development of African-American childrenPerspectives on Behaviour9/10/23cultural psychology (sometimes called cross-cultural psychology ) explores how culture is transmitted to its members and examines psychological similarities and differences among people from diverse culturesPerspectives on Behaviour9/10/23fference among cultures is the extent to which they emphasize individualism versus collectivism ( Triandis & Suh, 2002 ). Most industrialized cultures of northern Europe and North America promote individualism, an emphasis on personal goals and self-identity based primarily on one’s own attributes and achievements. In contrast, many Asian, African, and South American cultures nurture collectivism, in which individual goals are subordinated to those of the group and personal identity is deff ned largely by the ties that bind one to the extended family and other social groups.Perspectives on Behaviour9/10/23In collectivistic cultures, concern for the extended family plays a larger role in marriage decisions.Perspectives on Behaviour9/10/23students from collectivistic and economically poorer countries were less likely to view love as a prerequisite to marriage.Perspectives on Behaviour9/10/237 of 99/13/23
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The biological perspective examines how brain processes and other bodily functions regulate behaviour. Biological psychology has always been a prominent part of the ff eld, but its inff uence has increased dramatically over recent decadesPerspectives on Behaviour9/10/23behavioural neuroscience (also called physiological psychology ), which examines brain processes and other physiological functions that underlie our behaviour, sensory experiences, emotions, and thoughtsPerspectives on Behaviour9/10/23neurotransmitters , which are chemicals released by nerve cells that allow them to communicate with one another.Perspectives on Behaviour9/10/23Gall’s maps are completely inaccurate: Language and memory are not reff ective of brain tissue behind your eyes. However, the general notion that different functions are mediated by different areas of the brain was an idea whose time had come.Perspectives on Behaviour9/10/23critics (e.g., Caporael, 1997 ) believe that sociobiology overemphasizes innate biological factors at the expense of cultural and social learning factors in explaining complex human social behaviour.Perspectives on Behaviour9/10/23behaviour genetics , the study of how behavioural tendencies are inff uenced by genetic factorsPerspectives on Behaviour9/10/23Evolutionary psychology seeks to explain how evolution shaped modern human behaviourPerspectives on Behaviour9/10/23Sociobiology ( Wilson, 1980 ) holds that complex social behaviours are also built into the human species as products of evolution. Sociobiologists argue that natural selection favours behaviours that increase the ability to pass on one’s genes to the next generation.Using Levels of Analysis to Integrate the Perspectives9/10/23neurotransmitters, that are involved in the transmission of nerve impulses within the brain. One line of evidence proving that these substances are important is the fact that the most effective antidepressant drugs seem to operate by restoring a normal balance of these neurotransmittersUsing Levels of Analysis to Integrate the Perspectives9/10/23People who have been subjected to severe loss and neglect may develop pessimistic personalities that predispose them to slide into depression in the face of later life stresses. In addition, certain personality factors such as perfectionism, low self-esteem, and a lack of “mattering” make an individual more prone to depressionUsing Levels of Analysis to Integrate the Perspectives9/10/23According to the behavioural view, depression is a reaction to a non-rewarding environment. A vicious cycle begins when the environment provides fewer rewards for the person. As depression intensiff es, such people feel so bad that they stop doing the things that ordinarily give them pleasure, a pattern that decreases environmental rewards still further. This type of 8 of 99/13/23
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behaviour eventually begins to alienate others and cause them to shy away from the depressed person. The net result is a worsening environment with fewer rewards, a reduction in support from others, and the unhappiness and hopeless pessimism that characterize chronic depressionUsing Levels of Analysis to Integrate the Perspectives9/10/23Cross-cultural studies also have shown that in developed countries, such as the United States and other Western nations, women are about twice as likely as men to report feeling depressed, whereas no such sex difference is found in developing countriesUsing Levels of Analysis to Integrate the Perspectives9/10/23depression (cause) may lead to a decrease in social support (effect), and in turn, decreased social support (cause) can deepen the person’s depression (effect). Also recognize that the causes of depression may vary from case to case, and that multiple causes can combine or interact with one an otherUsing Levels of Analysis to Integrate the Perspectives9/10/23the same environmental factor can affect two people differently, depending on their biological and psychological makeup.9 of 99/13/23
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