CMNS 455Final
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Athabasca University, Athabasca**We aren't endorsed by this school
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CMNS 455
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Communications
Date
Dec 21, 2024
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18
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Assignment 4 : History, Public Information, Manipulation, Propaganda1Freedom and Responsibility in News Production: Journalism, Public Information,Manipulation, and PropagandaAbstractThis research paper investigates the relationship between freedom and responsibility in news creation, concentrating on the roles of journalism, public information, manipulation, and propaganda. This analysis utilizes historical and current media examples to explore the issues journalists have in reconciling their obligation to educate the public with other influences, such
Assignment 4 : History, Public Information, Manipulation, Propaganda2as political and financial interests. Critical concerns include consensus and discord over information, permissible boundaries of free speech, differentiations between truth and honesty, and the unavoidable nature of reporting from certain perspectives. The report finishes by suggesting strategies for journalists to maintain integrity and evade censorship or propaganda.IntroductionPhil Graham, the deceased publisher of the Washington Post, famously characterized journalism as "a preliminary draft of history." This principle positions media as a fundamental element of democracy, equipping people with essential information. Nonetheless, the reality is more complex, since media companies sometimes utilize the principle of public information to rationalize manipulation and propaganda. This study analyzes the conflict between journalistic liberty and accountability, exploring the conditions under which restrictions on free speech are permissible, the differences between truth and honesty, and the inevitability of bias in reporting.The Interplay of Freedom and Responsibility in News ProductionJournalism is often cited as a pillar of democratic society, owing to its embodiment of two fundamental principles: press freedom and public accountability. Together, these principles enable journalists to report without excessive influence while simultaneously requiring ethical and honest reporting. However, harmonizing these principles is difficult, especially in an age where media landscapes are complicated and external influences are prevalent. Journalists must continually balance their freedom to report with their obligation to offer accurate, balanced information.Freedom in News ProductionVarious legal and ethical frameworks, like as the First Amendment in the United States and Article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, protect journalistic freedoms.
Assignment 4 : History, Public Information, Manipulation, Propaganda3These regulations safeguard journalists from unwarranted intervention from governments and other powerful institutions. For example, investigative journalism revealing corruption or abuse of power, such as The Washington Post's coverage of the Watergate crisis, displays press freedom's ability to hold the powerful responsible (Kovach & Rosenstiel, 2021).However, complete flexibility in news creation might raise ethical concerns. Journalists may confront circumstances in which revealing specific information might endanger people or jeopardize national security. The disclosure of Edward Snowden's revelations concerning the United States National Security Agency, for example, prompted concerns about the balance between the public's right to know and possible national security dangers (Baker, 2009).Nevertheless, complete license is not equated with freedom in journalism. It necessitates a delicate balance of professional responsibility, particularly as audiences increasingly depend onthe media to make sense of difficult topics. The Society of Professional Journalists' (SPJ) Code of Ethics highlights this by encouraging journalists to "seek truth and report it" while minimizingdamage, operating independently, and being responsible and honest in their work. This code serves as a foundation for journalists, reminding them that the freedom to publish must be balanced with a dedication to truth, impartiality, and respect for their audience and sources (SPJ, 2014).Responsibility to Inform AccuratelyJournalists have an ethical duty to portray information in a manner that helps the public comprehend and make educated judgments, which goes beyond just reporting facts. This duty entails being meticulous in fact-checking, preserving impartiality, and steering clear of sensationalism, which has the potential to mislead or bias the audience's understanding of events.
Assignment 4 : History, Public Information, Manipulation, Propaganda4Journalists run the danger of eroding public confidence and harming the reputation of their profession when they neglect this duty. Plagiarism and falsification cases demonstrate the grave repercussions of ignoring accountability. Bailey (2005), for instance, describes a plagiarism case involving a journalist from Montreal, showing how abuse of freedom, when disengaged from accountability, may undermine confidence in journalism as a trustworthy information source. These violations act as warning signs for the profession, showing that in order to maintain reporting integrity, journalistic independence must be combined with ethical responsibility. The Role of Objectivity and BiasManaging prejudice is one of the main challenges in balancing freedom and duty. While journalistic objectivity is desirable, true neutrality is seldom achieved. Personal opinions, culturalsettings, and organizational demands often influence how tales are presented. For example, reporting on the Israel-Palestine conflict often reflects media outlets' geopolitical affiliations, which influence how events and players are portrayed (Entman, 1993). This tension between freedom and duty is also evident in judgments concerning source selection and framing. Journalists must strike a balance between the freedom to choose their sources and the duty to present fair viewpoints. Transparency regarding editorial judgments may help close this gap, as shown by The New York Times' habit of clarifying its sources and editorial practices in investigative pieces. The Impact of Propaganda and ManipulationThe freedom of news creation is often threatened by manipulation and propaganda. Governments and corporations may utilize media outlets to advance their agendas. Allied governments actively disseminated propaganda during World War II to influence public opinion
Assignment 4 : History, Public Information, Manipulation, Propaganda5and sustain support for the war effort (Boorstin, 1961). Although these actions may be warranted during crises, they highlight the risk of media freedom being misused. Media organizations in contemporary contexts encounter economic pressures that may result in self-censorship or biased reporting. The influence of advertisers is a significant issue, as dependence on advertising revenue can undermine journalistic independence. The hesitance of major U.S. networks to critique pharmaceutical companies, which are substantial advertisers, hasbeen identified as a constraint on media freedom (McChesney, 2013). Balancing Freedom and ResponsibilityIn practice, the balance between freedom and responsibility is particularly difficult when journalists are under pressure from political parties, commercial interests, or even their own media outlets. For example, some subjects may be off-limits owing to business sponsorships or political alignments, creating ethical quandaries that push journalists to balance the public's right to know against possible consequences. In such instances, the need to report fairly may collide with organizational demands to avoid controversy or protect financial interests. This quandary often forces journalists to traverse a complex ethical terrain in which the line between genuine reporting and financial interests is blurred. Journalists may also experience pressure in politically volatile contexts, where governments may seek to control narratives or limit access to information. For example, during periods of national security concern, governments may claim media limitations as required to defend the public interest. In these circumstances, journalists are responsible for two things: critically evaluating the motivations behind these limits and advocating for transparency whenever feasible. The scenario reported by Chung (2010), in which the Canadian government
Assignment 4 : History, Public Information, Manipulation, Propaganda6was accused of influencing scientific news, shows the ethical quandaries journalists face when external players try to alter narratives. In this case, the journalist's ability to report was limited by government attempts to restrict information, which called into question their obligation to present the public with balanced and comprehensive information. The conflict between freedom and responsibility may be resolved by ethical journalism and structural improvements. Transparency, accountability, andcompliance with journalistic norms are critical. Media literacy projects may teach people how to critically analyze news and spot propaganda or manipulation. Disagreements Among Journalists and Media OrganizationsIn an ideal world, journalists would present information based only on confirmed facts, resulting in an agreement on how news stories are covered. However, the truth is more complicated. Journalists and media organizations often dispute on how to interpret facts, which parts of a story to highlight, and how to effectively structure their reporting. Disagreements may emerge due to variations in editorial policies, individual prejudices, organizational interests, and external forces. Exploring these causes of conflict exposes the difficulty that journalists have in maintaining their integrity and neutrality (McChesney, 2015).The consequences of disagreementsVarying reporting on the same problem might cause consumers to perceive bias or unreliability in the media, reducing confidence. On the plus side, conflicts may promote pluralism by presenting audiences with many points of view from which to make their own conclusions. Example: COVID-19 coverage, during the COVID-19 epidemic, media organizations often argued on the relative importance of health concerns vs economic
Assignment 4 : History, Public Information, Manipulation, Propaganda7repercussions. These discrepancies mirrored deeper political and cultural divisions, impacting public perception and reaction to the crisis (Nielsen et al., 2021). Moreover, the media's involvement in story creation reinforces the inclination for subjective interpretation. Russell, argue that news is more than a collection of facts; it is a manufactured tale formed by journalistic decisions about what to include or exclude. This design unavoidably results in varying depictions of events, with journalists making decisions on whether information suit the story's stance. While such editing decisions are sometimes important to construct a cohesive narrative, they may lead to disagreements among journalists who have different perspectives on how a story should be reported (2006). Divergence in Editorial Standards and Ethical GuidelinesEditorial standards and ethical rules vary for every media outlet, affecting story reporting.Some organizations stress investigative journalism that holds authority accountable, while others concentrate on human interest or entertainment. These editorial choices affect how journalists handle facts and develop narratives, causing reporting disparities. The Society of Professional Journalists (SPJ) Code of Ethics promotes truth, impartiality, and responsibility, although media outlets interpret it differently. An organisation with a strong ideological leaning may interpret “fairness” as giving more weight to sources that agree with it, while another may interpret it as requiring equal representation of all perspectives (SPJ, 2014). Different interpretations might lead to different stories on the same subject, reflecting media ideological divisions. Circumstances That Make It Acceptable (or not) for Governments or Media Organizationsto Limit Freedom of Speech
Assignment 4 : History, Public Information, Manipulation, Propaganda8Freedom of speech is a pillar of democratic society, allowing anyone, including journalists, to express themselves and share information without fear of repercussions. However, this independence is not absolute. In certain cases, governments or media organizations may restrict speech to protect public welfare, national security, or social peace. Such limits, although sometimes essential, are divisive and raise worries about misuse, censorship, and the loss of democratic norms.Acceptable Circumstances for Limiting Freedom of SpeechNational Security: Governments may restrict free speech to preserve national security, especially during times of war or crisis. For example, during WWII, the United States and its allies suppressed military material to keep it from slipping into enemy hands. The D-Day invasion was kept secret to guarantee its success, exhibiting a reasonable balance between publiccommunication and military policy (Boorstin, 1961). However, using national security as a pretext to silence dissent or whistleblowing is contentious. The example of Edward Snowden emphasizes this conflict. While the US government defended limits on secret material sharing as a security measure, opponents said that Snowden's disclosures regarding widespread monitoring were in the public interest (Baker, 2009).Preventing Hate Speech and Incitement of Violence: Limiting speech that incites violence, promotes hatred, or endangers public safety is often considered justified. To prevent thereturn of fascist ideas, nations such as Germany have passed laws prohibiting Holocaust denial and Nazi propaganda. Similarly, social media sites have standards in place to combat hate speechand disinformation that might lead to violence, as shown during the 2021 U.S. Capitol riots.While such constraints are intended to protect vulnerable populations and preserve order, they may generate concerns about overreach. The subjective definition of "hate speech" may result in
Assignment 4 : History, Public Information, Manipulation, Propaganda9the suppression of contentious but lawful discourse, inhibiting democratic discussion (McChesney, 2013).Economic Interests: When media companies restrict free speech to protect advertising or stakeholders, they jeopardize their journalistic integrity. For example, certain news organizations have been accused of downplaying environmental concerns under pressure from business sponsors. This emphasis on commercial interests above public service compromises the media's position as an impartial watchdog (McChesney, 2013). Furthermore, Excessive or uneven content control might hinder free expression. For example, opponents have claimed that platforms such as Facebook and Twitter unjustly repress some political beliefs while enabling others to thrive. Such tactics may raise suspicions of prejudice and weaken confidence in digital communities (Gillespie, 2018).Unacceptable Circumstances that Limit Free SpeechPolitical Suppression: Limiting speech in order to quiet political opposition or criticism of the government violates democratic norms and is undesirable. For example, opposing parties or independent media may be censored.Cultural or Ideological Control: Restrictions applied to promote a single ideology or discourage cultural variety are sometimes seen as an infringement on free speech. For example, suppressing minority voices or cultural manifestations.Arbitrary or Overbroad Restrictions: Blanket prohibitions or imprecise rules that restrict speech without apparent rationale can result in misuse and repression of lawful discourse. Examples include laws that criminalize "fake news" without providing clear definitions.Consequences of Excessive Censorship on Journalism and Public Trust
Assignment 4 : History, Public Information, Manipulation, Propaganda10Excessive censorship by governments, media, or social platforms may harm journalism. Media trust declines when journalists feel limited in their reporting. The Canadian Association ofJournalists (CAJ) warns that reducing transparency and accountability in journalism may damageits image (CAJ, 2011). When viewers think problems are off-limits or underreported, they distrust the media, reducing its credibility. By blocking opposing views, censorship may hamper democratic conversation. Journalism educates audiences via free exchange of ideas and information. Government, organizational, and platform restrictions hinder journalists' ability to report freely, lowering public discourse. Media must be free to explore and report on matters to fulfill their democratic role. The Distinctions Between Truth vs. TruthfulnessJournalism relies on "truth" and "truthfulness" yet they have different ethical standards that affect reporting. Truth is verifiable information, whereas honesty is a journalist's approach toreporting it. Honesty, transparency, and presenting information fairly and exactly are all components of truthfulness, even when ultimate impartiality is impossible. Understanding the difference between truth and honesty illuminates’ journalists' ethical dilemmas as they navigate complex and subjective realities.Truth in JournalismHonesty in journalism is accurately reporting events, actions, and consequences. A factually accurate report uses personal observations, statistics, or reputable sources to corroborate facts. Due to the complexity of most stories, finding "truth" may be challenging. News events may be simple or complex, with several perspectives, shifting facts, and ambiguities that challenge a journalist's capacity to present a single truth. While reporting a political argument, "truth" may mean accurately portraying each party's statements, actions, and
Assignment 4 : History, Public Information, Manipulation, Propaganda11objectives. A journalist may portray a same occurrence in several ways based on what they stress. Such judgments, although necessary for a unified story, show that journalism's truth is not absolute but rather an attempt to accurately depict reality using available information (Brewer, 2019). The Concept of TruthfulnessTruth requires that journalists resist the temptation to create "pseudo-events" artificial occurrences that present a skewed or exaggerated portrayal of reality. A true journalist aims to present facts with integrity, highlighting any ambiguities, biases, and limitations in the information they share. Truthfulness involves a moral obligation to refrain from misleading audiences, even unintentionally (Boorstin, 1961). To be truthful, journalists must be transparent about their sources and techniques. The Society of Professional Journalists' Code of Ethics emphasizes honesty as a major pillar, advising journalists to "seek truth and report it" while staying open and responsible to the public (SPJ, 2014). Challenges in Balancing Truth and TruthfulnessEven though truth and honesty often coincide, there are times when they conflict, creating ethical quandaries for journalists. This conflict may arise when true data is presented without context and misleads viewers. For instance, crime data without socioeconomic context may affect public perceptions of specific districts. Even with proper data, journalists must contextualize numbers to prevent misinterpretation. Selective media coverage of protests or political gatherings may affect perceptions. Media coverage may provide a "true" view of the events but not the complete event by focusing on isolated incidents of violence and omitting the quiet background. According to Russell (2006), journalists must be mindful of the ramifications of selective reporting and remember that honesty
Assignment 4 : History, Public Information, Manipulation, Propaganda12requires delivering a comprehensive picture, especially when partial information may perpetuate stereotypes or public ignorance. Ethical Implications of Truth vs. TruthfulnessTruth and honesty in journalism have ethical consequences for the profession's reputationand responsibilities. Truth exists objectively and can be verified, whereas honesty is the attempt to report honestly, fairly, and transparently. This difference raises ethical issues:Intentionality and Bias: Journalists may unintentionally deliver information with personal or institutional biases. Even with correct information, framing or exclusion of views may damage veracity. This may damage public confidence in the media by seeming biased or manipulative.In his study on pseudo-events, Daniel Boorstin claims that certain tales are faked to look noteworthy. Such occurrences may be reported truthfully but not genuinely if the goal is to support certain agendas or narratives. Truthfulness recognizes that human views make total objectivity difficult. Ethical journalists give data in context, balancing fairness and accuracy to represent wider realities.Selected Omission: Reporting inclusion and exclusion have ethical implications. Leaving out crucial information might mislead readers and cast doubt on the journalist's credibility.Accountability, Trust: Being honest and transparent is essential for accountability. Journalists must rectify mistakes and minimize sensationalism to retain public confidence and truthfulness (Boorstin, 1961; CA J, 2011; Broersma,2010).Journalists report from a particular “point of view”It is relatively common for journalists to report from a specific "point of view," as it is difficult to attain complete neutrality in news reporting. Cultural, organizational, and interpersonal forces all have a role in how news stories are presented. Journalists, like all people,
Assignment 4 : History, Public Information, Manipulation, Propaganda13are formed by their experiences and cultural circumstances, which may subtly influence their viewpoints and decisions. Furthermore, media companies often have editorial rules and target audiences that influence how stories are presented.Framing theory research shows that journalists make both conscious and unconscious decisions about what to include, stress, or exclude in their reporting. This does not always indicate prejudice or immoral behaviour, but rather highlights the inherent subjectivity of narrative. According to Kovach and Rosenstiel (2021), journalism seeks to be a verification discipline that values openness in methodology and sources to assist viewers in distinguishing facts from views. As a result, although reporting from a point of view is common, adhering to professional standards such as honesty, accuracy, and impartiality guarantees that these viewpoints do not degrade into unbridled prejudice or propaganda.Differentiating Journalism, Public Information, Manipulative Discourse, and PropagandaTo understand the interaction between freedom and responsibility in media, we must differentiate between journalism, public information, manipulative speech, and propaganda. While all these forms entail communication and information distribution, they serve various purposes, use different techniques, and adhere to (or violate) certain ethical norms.Journalism is the process of acquiring, confirming, and presenting accurate information to the public. It promotes truth, impartiality, and responsibility, according to ethical principles to maintain credibility and openness (Broersma, 2010). Its major purpose is to protect the public interest by correctly reporting occurrences. However public information refers to the broadcast of factual, easily available material by organizations or governments in order to enlighten the general public. Unlike journalism, it often lacks investigative depth and prioritizes institutional aims above public interest (CPRS, 2024).
Assignment 4 : History, Public Information, Manipulation, Propaganda14Manipulative speech is the deliberate use of words to mislead, convince, or dominate others, often misrepresenting reality to fulfill certain purposes. It hinders informed decision-making by putting influence above truth. While propaganda is an intentional attempt to influencepublic opinion or behaviour by providing biased or misleading information. Unlike journalism, itis ideological, attempting to convince or influence audiences to support political, social, or economic goals (Boorstin, 1961).Solutions for Journalists Seeking Independence from Propaganda and CensorshipAs misinformation and deception become more common in media, journalists strive to retain their independence. Political parties, corporations, and powerful interests frequently strive to shape media narratives, diluting reality and undermining public trust. Journalists must fight these forces to retain their democratic watchdog status. Transparency, professional ethics, diversesources, and resistance to external pressures may help journalists avoid propaganda and censorship. Journalism may avoid propaganda and manipulation by being transparent. The Society of Professional Journalists' Code of Ethics (2014) demands journalists to be “accountable and transparent,” disclosing conflicts of interest and correcting errors to maintain public trust. By disclosing their biases, restrictions, and decision-making, journalists might deter covert influence. Journalists need high ethics to resist misinformation. The SPJ Code of Ethics (2014) and the Canadian Association of Journalists' Ethical Guidelines (2011) emphasize "minimizing harm," "seeking truth," and "acting independently". Many media outlets and journalists adopt these codes. Brewer (2019) also recommends media ethics training to help journalists avoid manipulation, especially when sponsors, advertising, or political groups may influence reporting.
Assignment 4 : History, Public Information, Manipulation, Propaganda15Source diversification is one of the best ways to fight disinformation. Using a single source, especially one controlled by industry or government, might misrepresent events. Journalists may prevent disinformation by using many, trusted sources. According to Russell (2006), "a well-rounded story is built from a multitude of voices," which helps journalists to offer a complete, accurate picture of complex topics. Journalists must be resilient to survive extensive censorship and safeguard their profession. Journalism may respond to government prohibitions or corporate control with anonymous reporting, encrypted communication methods, and partnership with overseas media groups that provide safeguards not available locally. Brewer (2019) emphasizes the need of connecting with alternative media sources to provide solidarity and support for journalists challenging authority narratives. Being resilient means sticking to professional beliefs despite intimidation or legal threats.While misinformation and propaganda develop, journalists utilize fact-checking and verification tools to remain accurate. First Draft and Poynter's International Fact-Checking Network help journalists quickly and accurately review stories. Digital media requires verification because rumours and false news travel rapidly, undermining public trust and distorting discourse (CAJ, 2011). To counteract disinformation, independent and public media must be supported and expanded. Public media is generally subsidized for the public good, unlike commercial channels that may be influenced by advertising or shareholders. These populations are often more suited for investigative journalism, media literacy, and impartial reporting. Nations may balance corporate or state-controlled narratives by strengthening public media and
Assignment 4 : History, Public Information, Manipulation, Propaganda16providing alternative perspectives. Philanthropic organisations, international journalism foundations, and contributions may help smaller outlet journalists preserve their independence, supporting a media environment that emphasizes truth above agendas (Russell, 2006). In conclusion, journalism manages truth, bias, and external pressures with freedom and responsibility. Journalists may survive manipulation and disinformation with ethical principles, media literacy, and institutional adjustments. Journalism may be a rough draft of history and a democratic instrument by confronting these issues. Legal, ethical, and societal standards affect news production freedom and responsibility. Freedom permits journalists to uncover and report the truth, but responsibility ensures it benefits society. Ethical and open journalism may overcome bias, propaganda, and external pressures while protecting democracy. Use caution when limiting free speech to protect national security, public safety, or social peace. Democracy, dissent, and public trust are threatened by government and media overreach. Freedom and responsibility are needed to ensure news production integrity and informed, democratic society. The ethical role of journalism as a communicator of information and meaning is affected by honesty. Honesty ensures context, integrity, and public interest in truthful reporting. Ethical journalists may balance these concepts and inform society while preserving public trust. References:
Assignment 4 : History, Public Information, Manipulation, Propaganda17Russell, N. (2006). Morals and the media: Ethics in Canadian journalism. (2nd ed.). Vancouver: UBC Press.https://0-canadacommons-ca.aupac.lib.athabascau.ca/artifacts/1867558/morals-and-the-media/2616553/view/?page=64Kovach, B., & Rosenstiel, T. (2021). The elements of journalism: What newspeople should knowand the public should expect(4th ed.). Crown Publishing Group.Baker, C. E. (2009). Media, Markets, and Democracy. Cambridge University Press.Bailey, J. (2005, July 25). Montreal journalist admits plagiarism. Plagiarism Today.http://www.plagiarismtoday.com/2005/07/25/montreal-journalist-admits-plagiarism/Society of Professional Journalists. (2014). SPJ code of ethics. http://www.spj.org/ethicscode.aspEntman, R. M. (1993). "Framing: Toward Clarification of a Fractured Paradigm." Journal of Communication, 43(4), 51-58.Boorstin, D. J. (1961). The Image: A Guide to Pseudo-Events in America. Random House.McChesney, R. W. (2013). Digital Disconnect: How Capitalism Is Turning the Internet Against Democracy. New Press.McChesney, R. W. (2015). Rich media, poor democracy: Communication politics in dubious times. New Press.Nielsen, R. K., Fletcher, R., Newman, N., Brennen, J. S., & Howard, P. N. (2021). Navigating the ‘infodemic’: How people in six countries access and rate news and information about coronavirus. Reuters InstituteChung, E. (2010, September 29). Government accused of manipulating Science News CBC News. https://www.cbc.ca/news/science/government-accused-of-manipulating-science- news-1.965777
Assignment 4 : History, Public Information, Manipulation, Propaganda18Canadian Association of Journalists. (2011). Ethical Guidelines. https://caj.ca/wp-content/uploads/Ethics-Guidelines.pdfBrewer, D. (2019, July 21). Is your journalism open to manipulation? - Media Helping Media - Free journalism and media strategy training resources. https://mediahelpingmedia.org/advanced/is-your-journalism-open-to- manipulation/Broersma, M. (2010). The unbearable limitations of journalism: On press critique and journalism’s claim to truth . International Communication Gazette, 72(1), 21–33.Canadian Public Relations Society. (2024). https://www.cprs.ca/About/Code-of-Professional-StandardsGillespie, T. (2018). Custodians of the Internet. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.