CHAP 11 - BLOOD

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Calayan Educational Foundation Inc.**We aren't endorsed by this school

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BSMT 101

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Biology

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Jan 10, 2025

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ANAPHY CHAPTER 11: BLOOD (1ST SEMESTER)__________________________________________MORE INFOS ABOUT BLOOD:Essence of lifeResponsible for reliving & delivers nutrientsPerforms essential function in lifeOne component of Cardiovascular SystemType of connective tissue that consist liquid matrix (see comp. of blood)1. Transports gases, nutrients, & waste products.Acts as a major transport medium in the body. Oxygen enters the blood in the lungs and is carried to cells. Carbon dioxide produced by cells, is carried in the blood to lungs. 2.Transport of process molecules.A substance may be produced in one organ or tissue, enter the blood, and move to a new location where it is modified. 3.Transport of regulatory molecules. Blood carries hormones and enzymes that regulates body processes.4. Regulation of pH and osmosis. Buffers help keep the blood’s pH within its normal limits.5.Maintenance of body temperature. Heat generated in metabolism warms the blood.6. Protectionagainstforeign substances.Certain cells act as a protection against foreign substances such as microorganism.7. Clot formation.Blood clots protects excessive blood loss. It is also the first step in tissue repair. A.Makes up 8% of total body weightB. Plasma-The liquid matrix of blood-Contains 55% of total blood volume-Pale, yellow liquid that surrounds the cell-91% water, 7% proteins (see letter e), and 2% other (Ions, nutrients, waste products, gases, & regulatory substances)C.Formed ElementsAlbumin. 58% of PP, maintains water balance and transportation of moleculesGlobulin. 38% of PP, some of it helps immunesystem, transports molecules, and are clotting factors for blood clots (pamumuo ng dugo)Fibrinogen. 4% of plasma protein and aids in clot formation. Conversion of fibrinogen to fibrin (threadlike protein that forms blood clot). Serum is a plasma w/o clotting factor/fibrinogen.45% of total blood volumeProduction of FEoHematopoiesis.-Process that produces FE and is continuous.-In fetus FE occurs in tissues such as liver, thymus, spleen, lymph nodes, and red bone marrow.-After birth, FE is confined (nakakulong)primarilyin lymphatic tissues. MAIN TOPICSUB-TOPIC ISUB-TOPIC IIFUNCTIONS OF BLOODCOMPOSITION OF BLOODPlasma Protein (PP)Formed Elements (FE) p1

ANAPHY CHAPTER 11: BLOOD (1ST SEMESTER)-All FE are derived from a single population of cells known as stem cells/hemocytoblasts.It differentiates to give rise to different cell lines, each of which ends with the formation of a particular type of formed element.CELL TYPESoErythrocytes (RBC)-95% and 4.2-6.2 million.-Disk-shaped w/ thick edges and has biconcave shape-Nucleusislostduring development-Unable to divide-Live for about 120 days in male and 110 days in female-Hemoglobin, pigmented protein, is 1/3 of RBC’s volume-Function:a)To transport oxygen from the lungs to the various tissues of the bodyb)Transports CO2 from tissues to lungsc)Oxygentransportis accomplished when it enters RBC & binds w/ hemoglobin-About 2.5 million RBC are destroyed every second-New RBCs are produced as proerythroblast (give rise to cell lines)-RBC’s production depends on the presence of vitamins:a)Vitamin B & B12: For prod. of RBCb) Iron: For prod. of HMG-Low blood oxygen causes kidneys to increase prod. of erythropoietin (stimulates red bone marrow to produce more RBC)-Decreased blood O2level = Increased of erythropoietin = Increased of erythrocytes/RBC-Fate of old RBC & HMGa)Macrophages (locatedin spleen & liver) removes old/damaged RBCb)HMG is broken down & recycled after phagocytosisc)Globinis broken down to amino acidsd)Iron released in hemeis recyclede)Heme is converted to bilirubin (yellow-pigmented molecule)f)Bilirubin is taken up by liver & released into small intestine as part of bileg)Jaundice, a yellowish color to the skin, bilirubin is deposited to other tissue-1/3 of RBC-Main component of RBC/erythrocytes-Consists of 4 chains & 4 heme groups. -Each protein in chain, aka Globin, is bound to one Heme, a red pigmented molecule that contains one iron atom (necessary for normal func. of HMG)-Iron atom binds to oxygen molecule (O2)-Oxyhemoglobin1.HMG w/ an O2 attached2.Bright red, when bound w/ O2 darker red w/o O2Hemoglobin (HMG)

ANAPHY CHAPTER 11: BLOOD (1ST SEMESTER)-HMG picks up oxygen in lungs & releases oxygen in other tissues oLeukocytes (WBC)-One in the 5% and 5-10 thousand-Spherical cells that lack HMG-Make up buffy coat (thin white layer of cells between plasma and RBC) when components of blood are separated-Larger than RBC & has nucleus each-Can leave blood byameboid movement (cellprojects cytoplasmicextensionthat attaches to objects then the rest flows into extension)-Functiona)Protectsbodyfrom microorganisms & pathogensb)Remove dead cells and debris from tissues by phagocytosisoEach WBC is named according to its appearance in stained preparationoGranulocytes.Large & specific Cytoplasmic Granules (CG).Neutrophils (a)-Most common type of WBC-Have small CG that stains in acidic & basic dyes-Lobed w/ 2-4 nuclei-Remains in blood for a short time (10-12hrs) then move to other tissues & phagocytized microorganisms-Deadneutrophilscan accumulate as pus (nana) in infectionEosinophils (c)-Contain CG that stain bright red w/ eosin, an acidic stain-2 lobed nuclei-Involved in inflammatory responses(allergy& asthma)-Destroys certain worm parasitesBasophils (b)-Least common type of WBC-LargeCGthatstain blue/purple w/ basic dyes-Release histamine, heparin (prevents formation of clots), and other chemicalsoAgranulocytes. Very small & not specific CG. It cannot be easily seen in microscope.Monocytes (e)-Largest WBC-Enlarge&become macrophages after leaving the blood & entering tissues-Macrophages phagocytized bacteria, dead cells, & cell fragments-Breakdowns phagocytized foreignsubstances& presentprocessed substances to lymphocytes (which activates it)Lymphocytes (d)-Smallest in WBC-Immune responseFormed Elements (FE) p2Types of WBC

ANAPHY CHAPTER 11: BLOOD (1ST SEMESTER)-Production of antibodies (whichdestroy microorganisms)-Several diff. types (T cells & B cells)oThrombocytes (platelets)Minute fragment of cellsConsist small amount of cytoplasm surrounded by cell membraneProduced in bone marrow from largecellscalled megakaryotesSmall fragments break off from megakaryotes & enter blood as plateletsPlays an important role in preventing blood lossoBlood can leak in other tissues and disrupt normal function when blood vessels are damagedoLarge amount of blood can lead to deathoLoss of blood is minimized by:Vascular Spasm (VS)-Immediate but temporary constriction of blood vessel that results when smooth muscle w/i wall of vessel contracts-The constriction close small vessels to stop the blood flow-Plateletsrelease thromboxane & endothelial cells lining blood vessels releaseendothelin (both stimulate VS)Platelet plugs-Important in maintaining integrity of blood vessels-Hemorrhage in skin & internal organs (pagdugo sa loob ng balat) happens when people lack platelets-Formation steps:1.PlateletAdhesion (PA). Platelets sticks to collagen exposed by blood vessel damage. Most of PA mediated through von Willebrand factor(protein produced & secreted by blood vessel endothelial cells)2.Von Willebrand factor forms a bridge and plateletsbindto collagen3.After platelets adhere tocollagen,they activate, change shape, and release chemicals4.Plateletrelease reaction happens when it releases ADP & thromboxane 5.Platelet aggregation is when fibrinogen forms bridgebetween fibrinogen receptors of numerousplatelets, and results to platelet plugBlood clotting/Coagulation-For severely damaged blood vessels-Blood can be transformed from a liquid to gel-ClotoNetwork of threadlike proteinakafibrin which traps blood cells, platelets, and fluids-Clotting factorsoNo. of proteins in plasmaFormed Elements (FE) p3Blood Loss

ANAPHY CHAPTER 11: BLOOD (1ST SEMESTER)oActivated only when there is injuryoMade in liveroRequire vitamin K-Steps in Clot formation1.Injured tissue causes inactive clotting factors to become activated duetoexposed connective tissue or releaseof thromboplastin2.Prothrombinase (clottingfactor) is formed and acts upon prothrombin3.Prothrombin (inactive clotting form) switches tothrombin (active form)4.Thrombinactivates fibrinogen into its active form fibrin5.Fibrin forms a network that traps blood (Clot)-Clot Formation ControloClots need to be controlled to avoid spreading throughout the bodyoAnticoagulantsPrevents clotting factorsunder normal conditionEx.Heparin & antithrombinThereare enough anticoagulants to prevent clot formation from spreading-Clot Retraction (CR) & Fibrinolysis (F)oHappens when it begins to condense into a more compact after a clot has formedoCRCondensedof clotSerumis squeezed out of clotEnhance healing and stops blood flowoFAsdamaged tissue is repaired clotsare dissolved by a process called FPlasminogen (inactive plasma protein)is convertedto plasmin (active) and over a few days it slowly breaks down the clot (fibrin)-If large quantity is lost during surgery or injury, a patient may die unless RBC are replaced-TransfusionoTransferofblood/blood components from one individual to another-InfusionoIntroduction of a fluid other than blood, such as saline or glucose solution into the blood-Early attempts to transfuse blood resultedtotransfusion reaction/agglutination (clumping/rupture of blood cells & clotting within blood vessels, nagdidikit ang RBC). It happens when patient and donor don’t have same blood groups-Antigens. Molecules on the surface of RBC. Also exist in some tissue & diff. organism. Produces specific antibodies. Triggers immune response against it. Includes bacteria and virus-Antibodies.Proteinsinplasma responsible for immune response in the body. It binds to their specific antigens-HemolysisoRupture of RBCBLOOD GROUPING

ANAPHY CHAPTER 11: BLOOD (1ST SEMESTER)-Antigens on the surface are categorized into blood groups (ABO & Rh are the most important)-Used to categorized human blood-2 types of antigens that may appear on the surface of RBC: Type A antigen & Type B antigenoType A BloodHas type A antigensContains anti-B antibodies (acts against type B antigens)oType B BloodHas type B antigensContains anti-A antibodiesoType AB Blood (universal recipient)Has both types of antigensNeither type of antibodiesoType O Blood (universal donor because it has no antigens)Has neither of A/B antigensContains both anti-A and anti-B antibodies-The types of antigens found in the surfaceofRBCaregenetically determined (passed down from parents)-Antibodiesagainst the antigens are usually present in plasma of blood and is produced by bacteria/food ingested-It does not exist in equal numbersTYPEABABOA/XX/BX/X/AB////OXXX/-First studied in the rhesus monkey-Rh positive have Rh antigens on the surface of RBC-85% - 95% of the population is Rh+-Antibodies are only developed when an Rh- person is exposed to Rh+ blood by transfusion or from mother to fetus-Rh+ can receive both Rh+ & Rh--Rh- can only receive Rh--Rh incompatibility in pregnancyoIf mother is Rh- & fetus is Rh+ (passed down by father), mother can be exposed to Rh+ blood if fetal blood leaks through placenta and mixes w/ mother’s bloodoFirst time this occurs, mother’s blood produces antibodies against antigensoAny repeated mixing of blood can cause reactionoThis can result to Hemolytic disease ofthenewborn (HDN)/Erythroblastosis fetalisMother produces anti-Rh antibodies that cross placenta andagglutinationand hemolysisoffetal erythrocytes occursCan be fatal to fetusPrevented if mother is treated w/ RhoGAM which contains antibodies against Rh antigensABO Blood GroupDIAGNOSTIC BLOOD TEST

ANAPHY CHAPTER 11: BLOOD (1ST SEMESTER)-To prevent transfusion reactions, the blood must be typed-Complete Blood Count (CBC)oAnalysis of blood that provides much useful informationoConsistsofRBCcount, hemoglobinandhematocrit measurements, and a WBC countoRBC CountNormal in male: 4.6-6.2 million per microliterNormal in female: 4.2-5.4 million per microliterErythrocytosisisan overabundance of RBC leading to increased blood viscosity, reduced flow rates,andplugged capillariesBlood doping process of increasing no. of RBCoHemoglobin MeasurementExpressed in grams of HMG per 100mL of bloodNormal for male: 14-18gNormal for female: 12-16gAnemia is the abnormally lowhemoglobin measurement indicationoHematocrit Measurement% of total blood volume composed of RBCDetermined by placing blood in a capillary tube and spin it in a centrifugeoWBC CountTotal no. of WBC in bloodNormal: 5000-9000 WBCLeukopenia is lower than normal WBC resulting from decreased production/destruction of red marrow. Caused by radiation & tumorsLeukocytosis is abnormally high WBC. Caused by infections and leukemiaLeukemia is the cancer of blood cells-WBC Differential CountoNormally:Neutrophils: 60-70%Lymphocytes: 20-25%Monocytes: 3-8%Eosinophils: 2-4%Basophils: 0.5-1%-Clottingo2 ways of measuring blood’s ability to clot:Platelet CountNormal: 250, 000-400,000 plateletsThrombocytopeniais when the platelet is greatlyreduced resulting inchronic bleedingthrough smallvessels& capillaries. Caused by decreasedplatelet productionProthrombinTime MeasurementTime it takes for the blood to begin clotting (normally 9-12sec)-Blood ChemistryoCompositionofmaterials dissolved/suspended in plasma can be used to assess the functioning of many of the body’s systemsoEx. High blood glucose can indicate that pancreas is not producing enough insulinCLINICAL IMPACT

ANAPHY CHAPTER 11: BLOOD (1ST SEMESTER)-Many cancer affect the type of rapidly dividing cells found in tumors. However, an undesirable side effect of such therapies can be the destruction of nontumor cells that are dividing, such as stem cells and their derivatives in red bone marrow-After being treated for cancer, some patients are prescribed growth factors to stimulate the rapid regeneration of red bone marrow-Although not a cure for cancer, the growth factors can speed recovery from the side effects of cancer therapy-Some types of leukemia and genetic immune diseases can be treated with a bone marrow transplant that provides stem cells to the patient-To avoid tissue rejection, families with a history of these disorders can freeze the umbilical cord blood of their newborn children-The cord blood, which contain stem cells, can be used instead of bone marrow-It is a disorder in which RBC become sickle-shaped-Consequentlythey become lodged in capillaries, blocking blood flow through them. This causes a further decrease in oxygen levels, which promotes more sickling-As oxygen levels decrease further, more capillary blockage is promoted, and so on-After repeated cycles of sickling, red blood cells lose their ability to resume their normal shape. This increases the number of sickled cells-The major consequence of sickle-cell disease is tissue damage resulting from reduced blood flow through tissues. As tissues are deprived of blood, themost common symptoms is pain, which is often severe-In addition, spleen and liver enlargement, kidney and lung damage, and stroke can occur-Priapism, a prolonged, painful erection due to venous blockage, can develop in men-Sickle-shaped RBC are also likely to rupture, which can result in hemolytic anemia-It is an autosomal recessive disorder. Only individuals who have two mutated beta globin alleles express the disease-Individuals who are heterozygous have normal beta globin allele and produce sufficient amounts of normal beta globin, so their RBC do not usually become sickle-shaped-Heterozygotes are carriers and are said to have sickle-cell trait-It is an example of a genetic disorder in which the heterozygote has a better ability to survive under certain circumstances than homozygous individuals-Carriers (Heterozygotes) w/ sickle-cell trait have increased resistance to malaria-Malaria is a disease caused by a parasitic protozoan that reproduces inside RBC. Parasite is usually transmitted from one person to another through the bite of mosquito-RBC of people w/ sickle-cell trait tend to rupture before the parasite successfully reproduces-Treatment from sickle-cell disease attempts to reduce the blockage of blood vessels, alleviate pain, and prevent infections-Hydroxyurea stimulates the production of gamma (fetal) globin -When the gamma globin combine w/ defective beta globin, the formation of sickle-shaped cells slows-Bone marrow transplants can cure sickle-cell disease, but such transplants can be dangerous and even fatal-Platelet activation results in platelet plug formation and the production of chemicals, such as phospholipids, that are important for blood clotting-Eicosanoids,a group that includes prostaglandins,thromboxane,and leukotrienes, the compounds involved in platelet activation-In humans, arachnoid acid is the most common precursor molecule for the eicosanoidsStem Cells & Cancer TherapySickle-Cell DiseaseClinical Importance of Activating Platelets

ANAPHY CHAPTER 11: BLOOD (1ST SEMESTER)-The enzyme cyclooxygenase (COX) converts arachidonic acid into a prostaglandin that can be converted into thromboxane-However, the actions of COX are inhibited by aspirin, which inhibits prostaglandin and thromboxane synthesis. As a result, aspirin reduces platelet activation-Taking aspirin can have harmful or beneficial effects, depending on the circumstances-If an expectant mother ingests aspirin near the end of pregnancy, thromboxane synthesis is inhibited and several effects are possible-The mother can experience excessive bleeding after delivery because of decreased platelet function, and the baby can exhibit numerous localized hemorrhages called petechiae over the surface of its body as a result of decreased platelet function-Platelet plugs and blood clots can block blood vessels, producing heart attacks and strokes-Therefore, suspected heart attack victims are routinelygiven aspirin enroute to the emergency room to reduce further clotting-American Heart Association (AHA) recommend low-dose aspirin therapy (75–160 mg/day) for all men and women at high risk for cardiovascular disease-The decreased risk for cardiovascular disease from aspirin therapy must be weighed against the increased risk for hemorrhagic stroke and gastro intestinal bleeding-The drug Plavix (clopidogrel bisulfate) reduces the activation of platelets by blocking the ADP receptors on the surface of platelets-It is used to prevent clotting and, with other anticlotting drugs, to treat heart attacks-When platelets encounter damaged or diseased areas on the walls of blood vessels or the heart, an attached clot called a thrombus may form-A thrombus that breaks loose and begins to float through the circulation is called an embolus-Both thrombi and emboli can cause death if they block vessels that supply blood to essential organs, such as the heart, brain, or lungs-Abnormal clotting can be prevented or hinderedbyadministeringan anticoagulant, such as heparin, which acts rapidly-Warfarin, commonly referred to by the brand name Coumadin, acts more slowly than heparin. Coumadin prevents clot formation by suppressing the liver’s production of vitamin K–dependent clotting factors (II, VII, IX, and X). Warfarin was first used as a rat poison by causing rats to bleed to death. In small doses-Coumadin is a proven, effective anticoagulant in humans. However, caution is necessary with anticoagulant treatment because the patient can hemorrhageinternallyorbleed excessively when cutThe danger of unwanted clots