GED107 - Ethics
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Philippines Science High School System**We aren't endorsed by this school
Course
HUMANITIES GED107
Subject
Philosophy
Date
Jan 13, 2025
Pages
14
Uploaded by GeneralResolve1642
Structure of the Course- The Grounds of Ethics (What are ethicalactions?)- Normative Ethics (What should I do?)- Applied Ethics (How should I be acting?)During 9/11..Who is to be commended?- Should we commend the building?- Or should we commend the engineersand architectsWho is to blame?- Should we blame the airplane?- Or should we blame the terrorists?Week 1Agency and AutonomyAgency- Julian Baggini, in a chapter in his EthicsToolkit, talks of a landslide or a boulderfalling.- It seems absurd for us to blame theEarth for the damage and death it hascaused.- It would be different if the boulder wasdislodged by a person-Agency involves freedom.Freedom- has been considered a metaphysicalcategory in philosophy.- Metaphysics is, simply put, the study ofwhat there is.- Philosophers have been debating on thenotion of freedom for a long time.- about our ability to choose-Deterministsargue that we do not havefreedom because everything we do arecaused by something else.-Indeterministsargue, however, that weare free because our choices do not haveany causes.- But if our choices do not have causes,can we, ourselves, cause our ownactions?Freedom as a possibility- the philosopherImmanuel Kantestablished that one cannot establish thatwe have freedom; we can only establishthat it is possible- it is generally considered to be thepossession of a "free will."- some Filipino Philosophers wouldtranslate will as "loob," and "free will" as"bukal sa loob."“Bukal sa loob”- means doingsomething sincerely, wholeheartedly, orout of genuine willingness. It implies thatthe action comes from a place of trueintention and not out of obligation orexternal pressure."loob"- relations and humanitiesAwareness and Autonomy- Kant, considering us as having reasonand the possibility of free will, considers usas autonomous.- He describesEnlightenmentasfreedom from another person's "tutelage."- Aristotle, argues that our rationalityentails self-awareness, i.e., being aware ofour own actionsBeyond rationality- Some scholars would also argue thatreason and freedom are not the soleconditions for agency.-Emotions and desiresare alsoessential to agency; are these not whatseparates us from AI?Collective agency- when we are upset with a rule, don’t weblame the government? Does thegovernment have "agency" like we do?- Some philosophers likePrimo Leviconsider these as gray areas sinceagency here would be difficult to identify.- We do talk about the collective entities,but it is difficult to pinpoint culpability here.
Simpler terms:Agencyrefers to a person's capacity toact and make choices independently. Itmeans having the power to take actionsbased on one's owndecisions anddesires.Autonomymeansself-governance orself-rule. It is the ability to make decisionsfor oneself without being controlled byothers. In ethics, autonomy is aboutrespecting a person's rightto make theirown choices about their life.Week 2Relativism and SubjectivismA PROBLEM-Women were not allowed to voteand drive (until now in SaudiArabia)-Homosexuality was considered amental illness (e.g. Alan Turing)-Warfare was a standard option forthe States-Severed heads were a sign oftriumph and glory-Infanticide was a standard practicein Sparta-Antisemitism was normal in Europe-Tattoos were considered admirable(e.g. “batikan”)Enigma-Things Fall Apart, Novel by ChinuaAchebe-Why were these things allowedbefore but not now?Changing Standards-We are better off now.-Why do moral standards change?-“Filipinos are weak and shy;Americans are approachable.”“When in Rome, do as the Romans do.”-As the world becomes smaller andsmaller, we always try to beunderstanding and accommodating-To accommodate cultural quirks isone thing, but to accommodateopposing moral standards isanother-We can do away with handshakes,but perhaps we cannot toleratemurders.Relativism and Subjectivism- are often critiqued in their inability toclaim absolute and objective moral claims.- Some would even say that if theHolocaust is permissible, then everythingis permissible.- Hence, Relativism and Subjectivism areeasily dismissed by many.Relativism, which is letting oneself betossed and "swept along by every wind ofteaching," looks like theonly attitude(acceptable) to today's standards. Weare moving toward adictatorship ofrelativismwhich does not recognizeanything as for certain and which has asits highest goalone's own ego and one'sown desires.-Pope Benedict XVIRelativism- Relativism claims that there are noabsolute and universal moral standards.- As each culture is independently valid,their moral standards are not accountableto "universal" and independent ones.- Different kinds of relativists rejectuniversals for different kinds of reason,includingnon-cognitivism.- meta-ethical framework, talking about thenature of moral normsOther terms:Non-cognitivism- we don't know whatwe are talking about; there is no truth in
what we say; we don't talk about anythingobjective-"Murder is wrong"), they are notmaking factual claims about theworld. Instead, they are expressingtheir own attitudes or emotions(such as disapproval of murder).Particularism- how to act and how to dothings-Particularism in ethics is the viewthat moral judgments should bebased on the specifics of individualsituations rather than on universalprinciples or rules.Relativism vs. Subjectivism-Relativism, simply put, is broader inscope.- Cultural standards can still be objective,but they are not universal.-Subjectivism, on the other hand, rejectsthe notion that moral standards can beobjective.Critique of Relativism- Critics claim that if moral claims arerelative, then there is no sense in talkingabout and assessing these standards.- For Julian Baggini, however, this iswrong. We can still assess relativestandards without discrediting their validityas independent moral norms.Subjectivism- Subjectivism claims that moraljudgments are not objective, factualclaims, but expressions of approval anddisapproval.- An extreme strand of Subjectivism iscalled Emotivism.-Emotivism, aka"Boo! Hoorah! Theory,"claims that moral judgments are actuallyclaims about our feelings.- "The Holocaust was evil." = "Holocaust?Yuck!"Emotivismas an extreme form ofSubjectivism, is obviously reductionist.Critics also claim that Subjectivismrenders moral disagreement passe."Degustibus non disputandum est."But reason has a role in understandingour feelings; this renders criticisms asinvalid."De gustibus non disputandum est"- "In matters of taste, there can be nodisputes".- The phrase is commonly rendered inEnglish as "There is no accounting fortaste."- This phrase suggests that personalpreferences, especially in matters of tasteor aesthetics, are subjective and that it ispointless to argue about them becausethey are individual and not governed byuniversal standards. What one personlikes, another may not, and both views arevalid within their own context.Moral Subjectivism vs. CulturalRelativismMoral Subjectivism-Asserts that moral judgments aremerely reports of attitude towardsomething-Immoral acts are acts that youdisapprove of which moral onesare those that you approve-“Murder is wrong.” = “I don’tlike murder.”-To be distinguished fromEmotivism, which asserts thatmoral judgments are expressionsof attitude.
Week 3Divine Command Theory-“Was God's command good justbecause He commanded it? Or didHe command it because it'sgood?”The Euthyphro Dilemma-This is the meat of the Euthyphrodialogue:the relationshipbetween the Good and the will ofGod.-In the Christian era, it is tied to theproblem of evil.-If God is omniscient andomnipotent, why does he allow evilto thrive?-Why did he command Abraham tokill his only son?-If God can do anything, why doeshe allow evil?Some Responses-St. Augustinesays that there isno evil per se; it is just theabsence of good.-Soren Kierkegaard, on the otherhand, characterizes the religiouslife as that of the absurd; it takes aleap of faith to see the divinebeyond good and evil.-Regardless, many philosopherssee the problem of evil as refutingthe existence of God.Knowing the GoodEthics as Rational-Plato shares with Socrates theidea that knowledge of the good isrational more than practical.-Knowing that x is good is likeknowing that the sky is blue.-This is in opposition to Aristotlewho distinguishes theoreticalwisdom from practical wisdom.The Euthyphro Dialogue-In the dialogue, Socratesinvestigates Euthyphro'sdefinitionof piety, showing that ethics isultimately a rational enterprise.-If someone is evil, that someone isnot just familiar with what the goodreally is.-One cannot do evil willingly.“Ethics is not a theoretical knowledge buta practical one.”Plato-The greatest among thephilosophers of the West-“The safest generalcharacterization of the Europeanphilosophical tradition is that itconsists in a series of footnotesto Plato.”- Alfred NorthWhitehead-He established one of the firstuniversities in West, The Academyin Athens-Was the son of a rich politician butrejected the political life afterlistening to Socrates-He devoted his life to teaching andlearning, dying due to old age.-He was the greatest pupil ofSocrates, revolutionizing the wholeof philosophy.-He established The Academywhich lasted for a thousand years,producing many philosophers, thegreatest of whom was Aristotle.Plato’s Dialogues-He is said to have producedessays and academic books, butwe have lost them (most probablybecause of the destruction of theLibrary of Alexandria in Egypt).-His extant works are all dialoguesmeant for public consumption. Hisearly to middle dialogues show
Socrates conducting his famousdialectic with his friends andstudents.-Perhaps his most famous dialogueis The Republic which outlines hisvision for an ideal state.The Problem with GodThe Transcendent-The concept "God" has alwaysbeen a tricky concept.-In the Western tradition, it hasbeen understood to be the epitomeof all perfections, makinghim/her/it/they the CompletelyOther.-God has also been the standard ofgood and evil, being the source ofall goodness Himself.-"Ubi caritas et amor, Deus ibi est."Some Contradictions-Having all these perfections entailsome contradictions.-The problem of evil: If God isall-good and all-powerful, whydoes he allow evil?-On omnipotence: If God isall-powerful, can he create a rockhe cannot lift?Some Responses-On the problem of evil:-From Augustine: Evil is not a beingas God is; evil is a lack whichneeds the presence of God.-Free Will Response: Evil does notcome from God but from the freewill of human beings.-On omnipotence: Deist Response:God does not actively intervene inworldly affairs; he is omnipotentonly in as much as he is the sourceof everything. ApophaticResponse: "God" is technically not;his omnipresence is not a positivecharacteristic but an approximationof his immense power.Setting-Socrates and Euthyphro crosspaths at the Agora or the ancientmarketplace of Athens; Socrateswas about to face the AthenianSenate for charges of impiety andEuthyphro was about to file somecharges. Apparently, Euthyphrofiles a charge against his ownfather for impiety because thelatter killed their servant; such filingis needed to "purify" theirhousehold of the killing.-In their conversation, Socratesdesired to learn what impietymeans for Euthyphro.-The conversation goes on to showthat while piety is to follow the willof the gods, it leads tocontradictions.The Dilemma-Euthyphro thinks that what he doesagainst his father was what pietyis.-Socrates then presses for adefinition to which Euthyphroreplies that whatever the gods lovewould be pious; otherwise, it isimpious. Upon questioning,however, Socrates points out thatgods also have differences;therefore, they love many differentthings, often contradictory.-Given this, Socrates rightfully asks:how do you settle disputes amongthe gods? Does this mean thatthere is an independent standardof the good from what the godsplease? If it does, then the godsplease them because they aregood; they are not good becausegod pleases them. It returns to thequestion: what is piety?
Week 4The Euthyphro DialogueSocrates-He can be considered as the firstmartyr of philosophy.-He was the teacher of Plato,considered to be the greatestphilosopher who ever lived.-His method is called the dialecticwhich entailed that he did notlecture, only asking questions.-He usually taught at the agora, theancient Athenian marketplace.-He's been known to be ugly with ahuge nose, unkempt hair, seldomtaking a bath, and frequenting themarketplace.-He called himself the gadfly ofAthens because he disturbedAncient Athenians with hisquestions.-Plato used him as the maincharacter of his dialogues, eventhough Socrates was neverparticipating there.The Platonic Dialogues-Plato has written essays, but hisextant works are in the form ofdialogues.-He followed Socrates' method ofthe dialectic where the studentsare questioned about theirdefinitions so that together, theywould arrive at the truth.-This provides a more extensive(yet more difficult) discussion onphilosop!ical topics.The Euthyphro DialogueSetting and character-Socrates saw Euthyphro comingfrom the courthouse.-Euthyphro just filed a case ofimpiety against his own fatherbecause the latter murdered theirslave.-Considered impure andcontagious, Euthyphro sought to"cleanse" their household by filinga case against his own father.Seeking Help-Socrates saw an opportunity tolearn from Euthyphro.-He asked Euthyphro what piety is,since he accused his own father ofimpiety.-The answer could have helpedSocrates in his own trial on impiety,filed by Meletus who was unknownto him.Impiety-Euthyphro first said that what isimpious is what is not pleasing tothe gods.-Upon questioning, Euthyphrorealized that the gods themselvesfight over what is pleasing to them.-What is pleasing to the gods is notin itself the criteria for being good.Code for Gods?-Since gods fight over each other,they follow different standards forwhat is good and what is bad.-Therefore, are gods bound by anindependent power because theyfollow rules of ethics?-If this is the case, then impiety tothe gods is not really impiety to thegods-but to whom?What is it, really?-Is something good only becausethe gods willed them? If it is notbecause of them, then what makessomething good?-As with many Platonic dialogues,there was no solution provided inthe end. In philosophy, we are left
to think about the answersourselves.Week 5Aristotle and Virtue EthicsNormative Ethics-deals with what is right and what iswrong, as opposed to Metaethicswhich talks about ethics on a moretheoretical level.-There are three Normative EthicalTheories:-Virtue Ethics-Deontology-ConsequentialismAristotle-Aristotle was a student of Platoand had huge disagreements withthe latter.-He recalls attending one of Plato'slectures on ethics, only to listen toa lecture on mathematics.-Dissatisfied with Plato's approach,he established his own learninginstitution, theLyceum.-Unlike Plato, Aristotle investigatedthe real world by documentingdifferent species of animals,categorizing things according tohow they are used.-His followers were known"walkers" during their lectures,gaining the name "Peripatetics".Aristotle (again)-He is considered as one of the twogreatest philosophers who haveever lived.-He studied in the Academy, theschool that Plato established inAncient Athens.-He later on established his ownschool in Athens, the Lyceum,which became a rival of theAcademy for hundreds of years."When we choose a path through a city orforest, our brain must survey thesurrounding environment, construct amental map of the world, settle on a wayforward, and translate that plan into aseries of footsteps. Likewise, writingforces the brain to review its ownlandscape, plot a course through thatmental terrain, and transcribe the resultingtrail of thoughts by guiding the hands.Walking organizes the world around us;writing organizes our thoughts."- Ferris JabrAristotle's Works-Unlike Plato, Aristotle's extantworks are essays-lecture notes forlectures that he gave.-His other works-mostlydialogues-have perished in history.These works include his work oncomedy and rhetoric.-Aristotle has two treatises onethics, the Eudemian Ethics andthe Nicomachean Ethics, namedafter his son,Nicomachus. Themore extensive and mature work isthe latter.Nicomachean Ethics-Aristotle wrote two treatises onethics, the Eudemian Ethics andthe Nicomachean Ethics, the latterbeing the more popular one.-It was dedicated to his son,Nicomachus.-Unlike Plato's extant works,Aristotle's works are in simplerGreek prose and are in the form ofsystematic treatises.
Week 6Virtue EthicsEtymological Origins-"Arete" in ancient Greece whichliterally means "excellence".-Excellence, conceived this way, isexcellence in proper functioning(ergon).-For objects, to be virtuous to beable to serve their purposeproperly (e.g., virtuous laptop,virtuous pen, virtuous jar, etc.)-For human beings, to be virtuous isto function properly in societywhich is an integral part of whothey are.-"Man, by nature, is a politicalanimal."-Our humanity is fulfilled by ourpolitical organization (polis)-One cannot be virtuous in adysfunctional society.PhronesisSophia-"Philosophy" comes from twoGreek terms, "philo" and "Sophia."-Philo = love-Sophia = wisdom-Aristotle first distinguishedbetween theoretical wisdom andpractical wisdom.Phronesis-Plato believed that to know thegood means to do the good; notdoing the good only means thatone still does not know it.-Aristotle, on the other hand,recognizes instances where weknow what is good and yet wecannot do it.-In ethics, theoretical knowledge isnot what is at work; it is practicalknowledge or phronesis.-Phronesis entails knowing what todo"to the right person, to theright extent, at the right time,with the right motive, and in theright way"(Nicomachean Ethics,1109a 25-30).-An incontinent (akratic) man,however, cannot push through withwhat is good despite his theoreticalknowledge of it.Notes:-Socrates was charged withheresybecause he did philosophy.-Akratic man- who knows it isgood but cannot do it because hehas weakness of the willTelos-Aristotle's metaphysicsemphasizes that everything has apurpose or an end (telos).-Everything strives to reach thatpurpose, e.g. a bud waiting to be aflower, a pupa waiting to be abutterfly, a seed waiting to be atree, etc.-Like everything else, humanbeings have a telos: happiness oreudaimonia.Arete-In order to reach this happiness,human beings need good luck andvirtues (arete or literally,excellence).-These excellences are of characterand not of mere faculty.-Virtuesare always exhibited bytheGolden Mean, the middleground of two extremes.The Golden Mean
-Aristotelian virtue ethics can besummarized into one sentence:-"Everything in moderation."-Virtues, according to Aristotle, hitthe Golden Mean; extremes yieldvices. For example:-Cowardice-Bravery-Rashness-Lying-Honesty-Tactlessness-Humility-Magnanimity-Boastfulness-Aggression-Patience-Stubbornnes-There are, however, acts that areinherently extreme like murder andtorture.Week 7Thomas Aquinas and the NaturalLawFrom Ancient to Medieval-Aristotle and Thomas Aquinas bothbelong to a pre-modern age wherereligion permeates all aspects oflife and discourse.-Monarchies are everywhere,monasteries are thriving, and theCatholic Church exerts a hugeinfluence in the whole of Europe-Both thinkers are separated by1500 years; we are closer toAquinas than he was to Aristotle.-They were separated by theHellenistic Empire, the birth anddeath of Jesus, and the rise andfall of the Roman Empire.Notes:-Capital of east roman empireConstantinople --> Istanbul-there are no absolute moralstandards-man by nature is a political animal- AristotleThomas Aquinas-Dubbed as theAngelic Doctorbythe Catholic Church-Was a 13th-century DominicanItalian priest whose works haveshaped medieval philosophy andChristian doctrine-Commonly interpreted as anAristotelian,his philosophybrought Aristotle's classicalthought into the medieval age.-Aquinas' springboard in Aristotle'sthought was itsteleologicalnature.Telos-the ultimateend,purpose, or goalof an actionErgon-concept from Aristotle'sNicomachean Ethics that is mostoften translated as function,task,or work.Arete-as a concept is a word whichmeans "excellence," "fulfillment,"or "virtue." Arete in early Greekmoral thought is something strivenfor throughout one's life.The Natural LawThe "Natural"-The concept of the natural wasvery important in Aristotelian
thought. For instance, Aristotle wasable to explaingravity in terms of"natural tendencies".-Philosophers agree thatSt. Paul'sEpistles were the origin ofuniversal thought, i.e., the ideathat there areuniversally bindingstandards of truth and morality.-For Thomas Aquinas, theLexNaturalis is the eternal law ofGodsince it was Him who laiddown all of this in Creation.Natural Law as Rational Law-Natural Law, as the law ordainedby God, is realizable by humanreason.-"Obligation, therefore, is imposedby reason, but it is foundedimmediately on human natureitself, the moral law is rational andnatural, in the sense of not beingarbitrary or capricious: it is anatural law, lex naturalis, whichhas its basis in human nature itself,though it is enunciated anddictated by reason." -FrederickCopleston, SJ-First principle of Natural Law:"Bonum est faciendum etprosequendum, et malumvitandum."-"Good must be done andpursued, and evil must beavoided."Teilhard de Chardin-He saw natural law as a way tounderstand the order andpurpose in the world.-He believed thatthis law isconnected to our moral choicesand that as people evolve, they getbetter at recognizing and followingthis divine order.-In simple terms, he thought thatunderstanding what's good andright grows with our developmentas humans.Desiderium Naturale-Like Aristotle, Thomas Aquinassees human beings as having anend that needs to beaccomplished; this end is thepursuit of good and the avoidanceof evil.-We have a natural desire(desiderium naturale) to pursue thegood. This pursuit of good can, inthe end, only be satisfied by Godalone-God, by definition, is that which isthe source and fulfillment of allperfection and human desires.-"Our hearts are restless until theyrest in [God]"- St. Augustine
Week 8DeontologyUnderstanding the CategoricalImperative-The Universal Law Formula: "Actonly in accordance with that maximthrough which you can at the sametime will that it become a universallaw." (Kant G 4:421)-The Humanity Formula: "Act insuch a way that we treat humanitywhether in ourselves- or in others,as a means only but always as anend in itself." (Cureton SEP)-The Autonomy Formula: "theIdea of the will of every rationalbeing as a will that legislatesuniversal law." (Kant 0 4:432)-The Kingdom of Ends Formula:"Act in accordance with themaxims of a member givinguniversal laws for a merelypossible kingdom of ends."(CG4:439)Week 9UtilitarianismConsequentialism-A generic name for a group oftheories asserting that moralassessment is completelydetermined by consequences.-Virtue Ethics emphasizescharacter, Deontology emphasizesduty, while Consequentialismemphasizes consequences.-The most famous ConsequentialistTheory isUtilitarianism, a theoryfirst forwarded byJeremyBenthamandJohn Stuart Mill.-Utilitarianism argues thatmaximizing pleasure is the goal ofany human actionAct vs. Rule Utilitarianism-Act Utilitarianismtalks about themaximum utility that an actionproduces-Ex. Prohibition of drunk drivingonly when there are casualties-Rule Utilitarianism, on the otherhand, talks about the maximumutility that a rule/maxim produces-Ex. Prohibition of drunk drivingwithout any casualtyThree Versions of Utilitarianism-Hedonistic Utilitarianismarguesthat the right action produces themaximum happiness that an actionproduces, and wrong when itdiminishes the latter. Firstforwarded byJeremy Benthamduring the Industrial Revolution, itwas pioneering in emphasizingworkers' happiness over theaccumulation of capital.-Welfare Utilitarianism, instead ofputting primacy on pleasure,argues that an action is right whenit promotes the maximum welfareor well-being of the greatestnumber of people, and wrongwhen it diminishes them-Preference Utilitarianismarguesthat an action is right when itallows the greatest number toexercise their preferences andwrong when it inhibits them fromdoing soArising Issues-The Trolley Problem is "easilysolvable" since Consequentialismwould just have you shift the levelto kill less people,-However, the problem shows usthat ethics is more than just merecalculation of gains and pleasure; itinvolves our obligations to differentpeople and even our ownconvictions.
-While it is easy to say that weshould just kill one instead of five,killing one is deliberate while killingfive is not since you don't really doanything.-Ultimately, Consequentialism is anattractive theory because it issimple enough, but we find that it istoo simpleWeek 11BioethicsConsequentialism-"Circumstances alter cases."-Casuistry - usually derogatory,referring to an abuse of the art ofthe casuist (medical professional)-Coming from a long tradition ofcase-based ethics from Aristotleand Thomas Aquinas, Catholic andProtestant theologians providedsuch case-based analysis in firsthalf of the 20th century.-Joseph Fletcheralso introducedthe notion of a "situation ethics"that drew the ire of manytheoretical ethicists, i.e.,philosophersBackdrop of Relativity-The first half of the 20th centurywas characterized by the rise ofthe social sciences as legitimatesciences-Anthropology and Psychologybegan and easily becamegroundbreaking in the perspectivesthat they brought.-Anthropology, the study of humanbeings, showcased variations inculture including differences inmorality-Psychology, on the other hand,was made famous bypsychoanalysis which showcasedthe inner motivations, oftentimessubconscious, that inform ourethical judgment-It was against this background thatmoral philosophers (especiallymeta ethicists) talked about ethicsMedicine and Medicinal Technologies-The 20th century also saw a rise inthe medical sciences and medicaltechnologies-Many medical discoveries weremade in the last century, mostsignificantly the discovery ofbacteria and the DNA-Antibiotics also provided greatleaps in the medical field, curingonce-incurable diseases, lesseningmortality rates around the world-With technology, however, camenovel ethical dilemmas:contraception abortion, euthanasia,etc.Characterizing Bioethics-The publication of Childress andBeauchamp's Principles ofBiomedical Ethics provided thediscipline with its much-neededconsolidation-Since the 1960s, Bioethics hasdeveloped from "BiomedicalEthics" to what we know asBioethics today.-The discipline, like medicine,draws a case-to-case analysisbased on common ethicalprinciples universal to all humanbeings-It is also interdisciplinary sincetheory does not take the place of athorough case-based analysis-Therefore, one may findphilosophers, medicalpractitioners, lawyers, and even"ethicists' conversing overbioethical issues
-“How Medicine Saved dThe Life ofEthics” by Stephen ToulminNew (but Old) Temperament-Draw from Aristotle's notion ofepieikeia or "reasonableness"-No single theory can provide theright answer to every single ethicaldilemma. There is noone-size-fits-all answer-Bioethics recognizes that eachethical dilemma is delicatelysituated in a very specific contextbased on the person, therelationships, the situation, etc-In these instances, one cannotanswer dilemmas from nowhere;the context, following basic ethicalprinciples, dictates the resolution.Ethical Review Boards-Bioethics is primarily practiced byresearch institutions like MapuaUniversity-The natural sciences seldom needethical clearance; researches thereare-often made on inanimateobjects-In the medical and social sciences,human subjects are essential toresearch.-Bioethicists oftentimes exercisetheir professional expertise inthese review boards, looking intothe methods and the ethicalimplications of proposedexperimentsWeek 12Environmental Ethics