Module 2 - Introduction to Hydrology (Part 2)
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Technological Institute of the Philippines**We aren't endorsed by this school
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CIVIL ENGI CE410
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Geography
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Jan 13, 2025
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TECHNOLOGICAL INSTITUTE OF THE PHILIPPINES 938 Aurora BLVD. Cubao, Quezon City MODULE # 2: INTRODUCTION TO HYDROLOGY (PART 2) CE 410 - Hydrology Submitted by: GROUP # 2 DE GUZMAN, EARL FEDERICO, ZANDY LORREDO, MYRTLE NADINE REDONGA, ELIJAH GABRIEL ROJAS, JOHN CARLO CES41S1 Submitted to: ENGR. FRANKLYN F. MANGGAPIS OCTOBER 30, 2024
MODULE 2: INTRODUCTION TO HYDROLOGY (PART 2) Layers of the Atmosphere oTroposphereThe troposphere is the lowest layer of Earth's atmosphere, extending from the Earth's surface up to an average altitude of about 12 kilometers Characteristics: It is the layer where weather occurs, and it is where we live and breathe. Hot air balloons and airplanes fly within the troposphere because it provides the necessary conditions for safe and efficient air travel. Contains 75% of all the air in the atmosphere and almost all of the water vapor which is 99% forms clouds and rain. 78% Nitrogen(N2), 21% Oxygen(O2) & 1% (Other gases) oStratosphere The stratosphere is the layer of Earth's atmosphere located above the troposphere. It extends roughly from an altitude of about 12 kilometers to 50 kilometers above the Earth's surface. Characteristics: The stratosphere is also home to the ozone layer, which shields the Earth from harmful UV radiation. Radiosondes can collect data and travel up to the lower part of the stratosphere. The temperature increases with altitude A rare type of electrical discharge called “blue jets” occurs in this layer.Different types of waves and tides influence the flow of air in the Stratosphere, causing regional heating in this layer of the atmosphere oMesosphere Comes from the Greek word “meso” that means middle. Lies in the middle of the Stratosphere and the Thermosphere. It is located between 50 and 85 kilometersabove the Earth’s surface.Characteristics: The mesosphere is characterized by thin air and low atmospheric pressure. It is also the layer where meteors burn up upon entry into the Earth's atmosphere, creating the visual phenomenon known as shooting stars. This layer contains a high concentration of iron and other metal atoms since it is the location where meteorites vaporize. The temperature in this layer decreases with altitude. The lowest temperatures in the Earth's atmosphere are found near the top of this layer, where they are roughly negative 90 degrees Celsius. Mesopause, is the “imaginary line”that separates the Thermosphere from the Mesosphere. Stratopause, separates the Mesosphere from the Stratosphere oThermosphere Greek word “thermos”meaning heat and sphere. The thermosphere is the fourth layer of Earth's atmosphere. It begins approximately at an altitude of 85 kilometers and has no clearly defined upper boundary. The thermosphere is primarily composed of individual gas molecules, such as oxygen and nitrogen, rather than molecular combinations. Characteristics: Where the auroras, such as the Northern Lights and Southern Lights, occur. Air density is low in thermosphere. Temperature = 2,500 degrees Celsius or 4500 degrees Fahrenheit. oExosphere The exosphere is the outermost layer of Earth's atmosphere, located above the thermosphere. It is the uppermost region of the atmosphere and gradually transitions into the vacuum of space. Characteristics: The exosphere is where satellites and other human-made objects in Earth's orbit are found. Satellites are strategically placed in orbit within the exosphere to perform their various functions.
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICSThe atmosphere of Earth can be stratified on the basis of differences in chemical composition as well as temperature and pressure. In the report, layers, their characteristics, and specific chemical components in each layer were discussed. Discussing below is how temperature and pressure changes as we go up the layers of the atmosphere. It also answers the composition of each layer. 1. Troposphere (0-12 km) ●Temperature Range: 15°C to -56.5°C ●Pressure: From approximately 1000 hPa to 200 hPa (decreases with altitude) ●Characteristics: ○This is the lowest layer of Earth's atmosphere, where weather occurs. ○The air density is highest in this layer. ○The temperature decreases with altitude due to the absorption of heat radiated by the Earth. ●Chemical Composition: ○Nitrogen (N₂): ~78% ○Oxygen (O₂): ~21% ○Argon (Ar): ~0.93% ○Carbon dioxide (CO₂): ~0.04% ○Water vapor (H₂O): Variable (0-4%) Stratosphere (12-50 km) ●Temperature Range: -56.5°C to -2.5°C ●Pressure: Around 200 hPa to 1 hPa ●Characteristics: ○The temperature increases with altitude due to the absorption of ultraviolet (UV) radiation by the ozone layer. ○The stratosphere contains the ozone layer, which absorbs harmful UV radiation from the sun. ○Weather balloons reach this altitude. ●Chemical Composition: ○Ozone (O₃): Most significant in this layer, responsible for UV absorption. ○The general composition remains similar to the troposphere but with a higher concentration of ozone. Mesosphere (50-85 km) ●Temperature Range: -2.5°C to -86.5°C ●Pressure: 1 hPa to 0.01 hPa ●Characteristics: ○Temperatures decrease again with altitude, making the mesosphere the coldest layer. ○This layer is where meteors burn up upon entering the atmosphere. ○The air is very thin, and atmospheric pressure continues to drop significantly. ●Chemical Composition: ○Mostly nitrogen and oxygen, but at much lower densities. ○Sodium (Na)and iron (Fe)are present due to the ablation of meteors. Thermosphere (85-600 km) ●Temperature Range: -86.5°C to 1200°C ●Pressure: 0.01 hPa to 0.00001 hPa ●Characteristics: ○The temperature rises significantly due to the absorption of highly energetic solar radiation. ○The thermosphere is where the auroras occur and is home to the International Space Station (ISS) and other satellites. ○Although temperatures are high, the low density of the air means it wouldn't feel hot. ●Chemical Composition:
○Atomic oxygen (O)becomes more abundant due to the high energy environment. ○Nitrogen (N₂)and helium (He)are also present, but in very low concentrations compared to the lower layers. . Exosphere (600-10,000 km) ●Temperature Range: 1200°C and higher (temperature is not well defined due to low particle density) ●Pressure: Extremely low (approaches vacuum) ●Characteristics: ○The outermost layer, where the atmosphere merges into space. ○Air molecules are so sparse that they can travel hundreds of kilometers without colliding with one another. ○Satellites orbit in this region. ●Chemical Composition: ○Mainly light gases such as hydrogen (H₂)and helium (He). ○The density is so low that it behaves more like the vacuum of space than a part of the atmosphere. Temperature and Pressure Trends: It is proven that with increases in altitude, pressure falls exponentially in all these layers. Temperature fluctuations get even more complex: It diminishes with height in the troposphere and mesosphere. Increases in the stratosphere due to the ozone layer and in the thermosphere due to absorption of the sun's radiation. Summary of Chemical Composition: The mixture of gases is relatively stable in both the troposphere and stratosphere and consists mainly of nitrogen and oxygen. Such that, therefore, the major parts of the upper atmosphere - mesosphere, thermosphere, and exosphere - are formed with altitude but with increasing dominance by the light gases helium and hydrogen. This atmospheric structure not only defines our weather and climate but also protects life on Earth by absorbing harmful radiation and burning up meteors before reaching the surface. Variables that influences the atmosphere 1.Solar Radiation 2.Geographical Factor 3.Human Activities Fossil fuel combustion clearance of forests Agricultural activities Industrial processes Greenhouse Gases:increasing concentration of GHGs amplifies the greenhouse effect which in turn causes a wide range of impacts on the atmosphere and environment from increased extreme weather to cooling in the stratosphere.Atmospheric Stability Atmospheric stabilityis a measure of the atmosphere's tendency to discourage vertical motion, and vertical motion is directly correlated to different types of weather systems and their severity. In unstable conditions, a lifted thing, such as a parcel of air will be warmer than the surrounding air. 3 types of Atmospheric Stability Unstable–it is considered unstable when the air parcel is warmer than its surroundings. It rises and expands Stable–it is considered stable when the air parcel is cooler than its surroundings. It sinks and compresses Neutral–it is considered neutral when the air parcel is the same temperature as its surroundings. It does not exhibit changes
Adiabatic Processes Adiabatic processes do not exchange heat and they are reversible. Lapse Rate A decrease in temperature with height is called a lapse rate and while the temperature decreases with altitude, it is defined as positive because it is a lapse rate. Moist and Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate Dry adiabatic lapse rate: Assumes a dry parcel of air. Air cools 3°C/100 m rise in altitude (5.4°F/1000 ft). Moist adiabatic lapse rate: As parcel rises, H2O condenses and gives off heat, and warms air around it. Parcel cools more slowly as it rises in altitude, ≈6°C/1000 m (≈3°F/1000 ft).It is considered: Absolutely Stable–if the environmental lapse rate is less than the moist adiabatic lapse rate. Absolutely Unstable–if the environmental lapse rate is greater than the dry adiabatic lapse rate. Conditionally Stable–if the environmental lapse rate is between the moist and dry adiabatic lapse rates. Influences of Atmospheric Stability to Weather Patterns and Phenomena Atmospheric instability can trigger the development of clouds, precipitation, and storms. Atmospheric instability often results in the development of severe weather events. Some of the notable phenomena associated with instability include Thunderstorms.
REFERENCES:University Corporation for Atmospheric Research (UCAR). (2024, August 23). The troposphere. University Corporation for Atmospheric Research. https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/atmo/chapter/chapter-5-atmosphericstability/ UCAR. (n.d.). The troposphere. University Corporation for Atmospheric Research. https://scied.ucar.edu/learning-zone/atmosphere/troposphere Aurora Education. (n.d.-a). Aurora. National Geographic Education. https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/aurora/#:~:text=protons%2C%20and%20neutrons.-,aurora,particles%20in%20Earth’s%20magnetic%20fieldQuora. (n.d.). How do latitude, altitude, and land distribution affect patterns of circulation in the atmosphere and ocean? https://www.quora.com/How-do-latitude-altitude-and-land-distribution-affect-patterns-of-circulation-in-the-atmosphere-and-ocean#:~:text=Latitude%20affects%20the%20concentration%20of,the%20decrease%20in%20the%20temperature Study.com. (n.d.). Temperature, clouds, wind, humidity on the atmospheric cycle. https://study.com/academy/lesson/temperature-clouds-wind-humidity-on-the-atmospheric-cycle.html#:~:text=As%20air%20temperature%20increases%2C%20the,chances%20of%20rain%20and%20thunderstorms