World War II

In June 1943, the Western Allies initiated a strategic bombing campaign against Germany, targeting industrial centers and civilian populations to disrupt the war economy and demoralize the German people. This campaign, known as the Combined Bomber Offensive, was controversial and raised ethical concerns due to the civilian casualties it caused. However, the Allies argued that it was necessary to cripple German war production capabilities and shorten the war.

As 1943 progressed, Germany went on the defensive across all fronts. Their attempt to launch a major summer offensive at Kursk in July—Operation Citadel—was a strategic blunder. When the Germans attacked heavily fortified Soviet positions, they encountered fierce resistance due to prior Soviet intelligence of an impending German attack. After suffering heavy casualties in tank battles and failing to achieve any significant breakthroughs, the Germans abandoned the offensive in early August 1943. The Battle of Kursk marked a decisive Soviet victory and another turning point on the Eastern Front, definitively ending any hope of Germany achieving a victory in the East. Following this success, the Soviets had effectively prepared for a blistering counterattack from the Eastern European theater. Moreover, the simultaneous invasion of the Italian mainland also cut short any future German expeditions. Their forces instead marched southwestward to secure the Italian mainland.

Toward late 1943, the tide of the war had decisively shifted in favor of the Allies. With victories in North Africa, the Pacific, and the Eastern Front, they began rolling back all Axis gains made in the previous years. The year also witnessed significant advancements in Allied coordination and strategic planning, arraying their forces for a final push against the Axis powers in 1944 and beyond. Significantly, the terrestrial defeats also blunted Germany's naval edge, which was also facing significant losses. The German Navy's defeat in the Atlantic was also a pressing factor. Meanwhile, the French Resistance and Free French Army helped liberate Paris by the end of August 1944, after the Allies started invading Southern France through Italy in June 1944. The French territories then witnessed gradual liberation.

Concurrent with the Western Allies' advance in Western Europe, the relentless Soviet offensive on the Eastern Front continued to make significant progress. The USSR successfully lifted the longest and most harrowing military siege of history from Leningrad (now known as St. Petersburg). This boosted morale and bolstered campaigns beyond Soviet borders into neighboring Balkan states. Following a string of effective counter-invasions, Soviet forces were able to free large areas of land that the Germans had previously occupied. This included the liberation of Belarus, Ukraine, and parts of Poland. Moreover, their relentless advance also led to the liberation of Eastern European nations like Yugoslavia, Hungary, and Romania. These successes not only contributed to the German defeat but also significantly impacted the post-war geopolitical landscape of Eastern Europe.

The Pacific theater witnessed parallel developments with decisive victories for the Allies. Following the success of the protracted and brutal Guadalcanal campaign, the Allies initiated a multi-pronged offensive in the Pacific aimed at isolating and ultimately defeating Japan. US forces launched strategic offensives in the Mariana and Palau Islands, securing crucial air bases within striking distance of the Japanese mainland. This strategy involved capturing strategically crucial islands in the Solomon Islands chain, and the Gilbert and Marshall Islands, effectively breaching Japan's defensive perimeter in the central Pacific. These island-hopping campaigns, though often fierce and costly, proved essential in severing Japanese supply lines.

These gains offered a strategic advantage, as these airfields allowed for the initiation of heavy bombing campaigns targeting Japan's industrial heartland, significantly hampering its war efforts. Additionally, decisive victories in major naval battles like the Battle of the Philippine Sea and the Battle of Leyte Gulf dealt crippling blows to the Japanese navy, hindering their ability to resupply their forces and engage in large-scale naval operations. As a result, vital airfields cropped up closer to the Japanese mainland, placing Japan in an increasingly delicate position over time.

Simultaneously, mainland Asia witnessed a crucial development. Chinese forces continued to engage the Japanese in a relentless war of attrition. This persistent war, despite the Chinese lacking advanced weaponry and facing immense hardship, inflicted significant losses on their adversaries. The conflict additionally pinned down valuable resources that could instead find use elsewhere. Notably, the seven-week Battle of Changde in late 1943 exemplified Chinese resolve, as they held off relentless Japanese attacks despite having limited supplies and reinforcements.

The Chinese also reversed earlier Japanese gains made in Burma, and the latter's intrusions into north-eastern British India faced setbacks following the Battles of Imphal and Kohima. By 1944, British Indian troops had soundly driven the invading Japanese to Burma. However, Japan would launch a second Chinese invasion in April 1944, which would see them regroup their forces and link up with their installations in Indochina. Regardless, the sensitive situation with a shrinking Japanese perimeter left the Axis power on the overall defensive.

Following three years of enduring immense pressure on the Eastern and North African Fronts, the Western Allies launched their highly anticipated invasion of Normandy, France, on June 6, 1944. This is now known as D-Day. The large-scale operation, involving thousands of ships, aircraft, and troops, marked the beginning of the liberation of Western Europe. Additionally, a simultaneous invasion of southern France from occupied Italy put the Axis forces on the back foot in a two-front conflict in France. After successfully establishing a foothold in Normandy, the Allied forces faced fierce German resistance but steadily pushed eastward, culminating in the liberation of Paris in August 1944.

Despite a series of setbacks and heavy losses, the Axis powers—particularly Germany—continued to resist stubbornly throughout 1944 and into 1945. In December 1944, Germany launched a desperate last-ditch offensive in the Ardennes Forest, known as the Battle of the Bulge. This surprise attack aimed to split the Allied forces and capture Antwerp, a critical port city. The offensive was the last significant German offensive on the Western Front; however, by January 1945, this ambitious attack had been repulsed. Meanwhile, on the Eastern Front, Soviet forces continued their spearheading advance, liberating Poland and capturing East Prussia on their path to Berlin.

February 1945 saw the Yalta Conference, a pivotal meeting between Allied leaders such as Winston Churchill, Franklin D. Roosevelt, and Joseph Stalin. They agreed on the occupation of post-war Germany and made way for the Soviet Union's entry into the war against Japan. Throughout February and March, both Allied sides launched major offensives. The Soviets pushed into Silesia and Pomerania, while the Western Allies crossed the Rhine River, encircling German forces in the Ruhr area. Allied forces captured major cities like Hamburg and Nuremberg. By April, American and Soviet forces linked up on the Elbe River, effectively cutting Germany in half. Following months of fierce fighting, Soviet forces finally reached Berlin in April 1945 and engaged in a brutal battle for control of the German capital. The final weeks of April witnessed the fall of major cities and key figures.

As Italian partisans killed Benito Mussolini, the Italian Social Republic also fell. By late April, all German forces in Italy surrendered, as did the puppet state not long after. On April 30, Hitler committed suicide, signifying the impending defeat of Nazi Germany. Another senior figure in the Nazi establishment—Joseph Goebbels—also committed suicide on the next day, signaling a total military failure of Germany and the impending invasion of the capital. On May 2, 1945, Soviet troops stormed and captured Berlin after weeks of intense urban warfare, marking a symbolic and decisive victory in the war. With the fall of Berlin and the complete encirclement of German forces, unconditional surrender was formally signed on May 7th, 1945, in Reims, France, and again on May 8th in Berlin, officially ending World War II in Europe.

However, the war in the Pacific continued for a few additional months. Allied forces, including American, Australian, and Chinese troops, continued their push across the Pacific island chains, capturing key islands and inflicting increasingly heavy losses on the Japanese. American forces, accompanied by Filipino troops, cleared the Philippines by April 1945. Meanwhile, a massive firebombing campaign targeted key Japanese cities, aiming to destroy war industry and civilian morale. The firebombing of Tokyo was especially significant and remains the deadliest bombing raid in human history, directed at forcing a Japanese surrender.

In May 1945, Allied forces secured further victories in the Pacific theater. Australian troops landed in Borneo, restricting the reach of Japanese expeditionary forces. Simultaneously, the British and Chinese defeated the Japanese in Burma. The American advance eventually resulted in pitched battles fought on islands like Iwo Jima and Okinawa, which made it clear to Japan that an invasion of its home territories was imminent. Consistent naval raids and blockades by Allied navies also thinned Japanese supply lines and made the cost of resisting immensely high, in addition to cutting off its overseas expeditionary armies.

With the war reaching its final stages, Allied leaders gathered again in Potsdam, Germany, in July 1945. They reaffirmed agreements regarding post-war Germany and issued a declaration demanding Japan's unconditional surrender. Despite the ultimatum, the Japanese government initially refused, clinging to hopes of a more favorable offer. Given that casualties were mounting for the United States, the establishment realized Japan was unwilling to surrender in a conventional conflict. Soon after, the course of the war shifted dramatically with the use of atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki by the United States on August 6 and 9, respectively.

As the nation reeled from the nuclear bombings, Japan was also left dealing with a Russian invasion against its holdings in Manchuria and its maritime possessions toward the northeast, alongside its marine border with the USSR. Based on its commitments mentioned in the Yalta Agreement, the Soviet Union continued its advance in Manchuria and decimated the Kwantung Army, which happened to be Imperial Japan’s most significant military force. This series of events, coupled with the devastating impact of the atomic bombs, finally convinced the Japanese leadership to accept surrender. The Japanese government finally buckled on August 15th, 1945, and formally signed the treaty of surrender on September 2, 1945, marking the official end of World War II.