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Accountability In The 1990s

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Accountability arose in the 1990s and had a dual focus enhancing institutional autonomy and performance (Clark, 1983). The emergence of the new accountability had both historical and theoretical bases. For instance, higher education scholars have long argued that higher education institutions will enhance institutional performance if they are autonomous (e.g., Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching 1982; Clark 1983; Himanen et al. 2009; Volkwein 1987). Policymakers began to lessen regulations and empower campus leaders in the 1990s. On the other hand, state policymakers began to view higher education institutions as a tool of state policy because a majority of high school graduates began to enroll in college (Alexander 2000; Heller
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