The Home Owners Loan Corporation (HOLC) and the Federal Housing Administration (FHA) introduced long-term mortgage and guaranteed to lenders with low interest rate and extended payment period. The number of Americans who could purchase homes increased and Jackson pointed out how the American way of life transformed, which is to buy a home than to rent. It is said that “today, renters account for one-third of all households, suburbs house far more people than cities, and affordability has supplanted physical deficiency as the primary housing problem (Schwartz 2015, 17).” However, the HOLC and FHA excluded the black population such that the HOLC appraisal and rating system assessed neighborhoods with black inhabitants to be hazardous and the FHA concerned about white-black separation in terms of the investment values (201, 208). FHA helped the building industry to turn against the minority and inner-city housing market and its policies supported the income and racial segregation of suburbia (213).
Redlining defines the act of refuting facilities to residents of particular areas based on the fact that these residents belong to a minority class. The white communities were rated “Green” which meant “desirable area” and the non-white communities or the ones under development, were rated “Red” which meant that these areas were non-desirable. They were redlined. This resulted in most of the benefits going to white communities and they progressed more as compared to other racial groups. Blockbusting: Blockbusting was a technique used by real estate agents to encourage white property owners to offer their homes at cheap values in the fear that families from other racial groups were moving in the neighborhood.
Selling to nonwhites would undermine the property value in new suburbs. So Development owners did not want to sell to nonwhites. 2. In reference to the government’s appraisal system, what does the term “ redlined” mean?
FHA that made RRCs an important condition of mortgage insurance continued to enact their policies to segregate white families to new and exclusive suburbs. Even after the courts prohibited explicit racial zoning, FHA believed that African American families threaten home value and their insurability. “the FHA took the position that the presence of African Americans in nearby neighborhoods was nonetheless a consideration that could threaten FHA insurability” (quoted in Making Ferguson, pp. 16). The effects of their actions of racial segregation persists even today in most neighborhoods. (Making Ferguson, pp.
With many unable to purchase homes, the 1933 Home Owners’ Loan Corporation purchased mortgages and issued new ones with extended repayment periods. To assess the risks of buying such mortgages, the HOLC would not only look at the wealth of the neighborhood but also made decisions of aid based on racial biases; Black Americans were seen to be high risk. Additionally, President Roosevelt’s 1934 Federal Housing Administration issued a requirement that only encouraged banks to make loans to suburbs due to the “risks” associated with “adverse influences,… including prevention of the infiltration of… lower class occupancy, and inharmonious racial groups (65).” Though the specific language of the requirement changed to “compatibility among the neighborhood occupants” in 1952, the racist nature of the policy stood with a white man being blacklisted from FHA insurance just six years later for renting his mortgaged home to a Black man. In the building of suburban districts during and after World War II, the FHA would refuse to subsidize developments that were racially integrated or had African Americans in nearby neighborhoods that threatened the uniform racial composition.
Dr. George E Bardwell, a professor of statistics and mathematics at the University of Denver, had studied park hill housing and school development for many years and prepared a report for the Denver Commission on Community Relations, published in 1966, entitled Park Hill Areas of Denver. In his report he laid out was happening in housing schools, and the gradual segregation in Park Hill and northeast Denver. The real estate practices known as “redlining” and “blockbusting” were at work in these areas of Park Hill. Years earlier In 1948, the Supreme Court ruled that the Fourteenth Amendment’s Equal Protection Clause outlawed the states’ legal enforcement of racially restrictive covenants in state courts.{9} In this event, decades of segregation laws which compelled Black Americans to live in over-crowded and over-priced ghettos created economic pressures to avail black people of housing in racially segregated neighborhoods were annulled. The Fair Housing Act of 1968 established federal causes of action against blockbusting, including illegal real estate broker claims that Blacks and Hispanics, et al. had or were going to move into a neighborhood, and so devalue the properties.
The first to do so was Baltimore, who in 1910, chose to formalize legislation that prohibited Black people from purchasing residences in majority-white neighborhoods and vice versa. In response to this injustice, President Lyndon B. Johnson ratified the Fair Housing Act in 1968, declaring it unlawful for real estate agents to discriminate on the account of race, religion, or nationality. Despite the FHA’s legalization, the racial wealth gap remains a current and significant concern in the African-American community due to the expanding racial wealth gap supported by Redlining’s legacy. Redlining and housing segregation continue to be interwoven with the racial wealth gap due to the low homeownership rates amongst the minority community, deflated home prices of residences in redlined areas – where most Black people reside –, and the lack of funding for education and resources in majority-Black neighborhoods. Chicago was among the numerous cities that were heavily impacted by the housing segregation crisis and continues to face the devastating effects, one of the many being the racial income disparities.
INTRODUCTION The United States incarcerates a greater percentage of the population than any country in the world (CBS, 2012). According to the US Bureau of Justice Statistics, over 2.3 million adults were incarcerated in federal and state prisons, and county jails in 2013. There are an additional 820,000 people on parole and 3.8 million people on probation (Wagner & Rabuy, 2016) Jail and prison differ primarily in regards to the length of stay for inmates.
Even after the Fair Housing Act was passed, informal segregative practices by realtors prevented minority groups from having access to white communities in the north; although San Diego increased in diversity and numbers of minority groups, individuals from different ethnic and racial groups were restricted to a few neighborhoods (Guevarra 2012). Increasing influxes of Hispanics and Latinos in the past few decades have created racial turnovers in many communities that were previously dominated by African Americans ("Feeling a Different Pulse in the Heart of Black San Diego” 2011). After the 1960s, blacks other racial and ethnic minorities also began to spread from the southeastern areas of San Diego that they had previously dominated (Guevarra 2012). This pattern of racial turnover—whites leaving in response to manufacturing industries, influxes of blacks, and influxes of other (predominantly Hispanic) minority groups—is characteristic of many southern neighborhoods. Blacks and Latinos remain in these historically-segregated neighborhoods.
One way in which this fear is implemented is by increasing the inequality between races. Urban planning, in particular, has played a large role in this as it has historically advantaged some people while putting others at a disadvantage. From gentrification and racial disparities in law enforcement to practices such as blockbusting and redlining, it is apparent that policies and decisions made by city planners were not designed to benefit everyone equally. Particularly the Housing Act of 1949 and the Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1956. Both of these policies displaced residents through the use of eminent domain and condemnation laws (Budds, “How Urban Design Perpetuates Racial Inequality – And What We Can Do About It”).
In the epic poem, “The Odyssey of Homer” translated by Allen Mandelbaum, our epic hero even though physically strong, he relies more on his mind than his muscles. The Odyssey focuses on Odysseus, “ a man of twists and turns” trying to get home to his wife and son after being lost at sea for years. Throughout Odysseus journey, he is able to use his cunning mind to get himself out of danger and return home. The Odyssey shows how the skillful mind can be more effective than brute strength. First of all, Odysseus’ victory in the Trojan War was won using his skillful tactics.
They argue that institutional racism in the housing market enacted by the US Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD), private loan and real estate institutions and actors, and white residents effectively and permanently isolated African Americans. Institutionalized racist practices of the housing market such as redlining and steering, coupled with white flight and structural disinvestment in African American neighborhoods, effectively isolated African Americans and further contributed to the creation of black ghettos. Thus, residential segregation concentrates poverty, erodes institutional and economic support, and ultimately causes its residents to normalize their problematic social environment of high levels of joblessness, teenage pregnancy, drugs, and violence. If the segregation of African Americans were to be resolved by their economic achievement and class mobility, middle-class African Americans should be able to enter white neighborhoods of comparable income levels. However, as Massey and Denton show, once the threshold of “too many black families” is crossed, white flight occurs and poorer black families move into the neighborhood, creating (and expanding) racially segregated
Public Policy on Housing Discrimination Executive Summary Housing discrimination and segregation have long been present in the American society (Lamb and Wilk). The ideals of public housing and home buying have always been intertwined with the social and political transformation of America, especially in terms of segregation and inequality of capital and race (Wyly, Ponder and Nettking). Nevertheless, the recent unrest in Ferguson, Missouri and in Baltimore due to alleged police misconduct resulting to deaths of black men brought light on the impoverished conditions in urban counties in America (Lemons). This brings questions to the effectiveness of the Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) in devising more fair-housing facilities (Jost).
Once someone is arrested and sent to prison, most of us think they have done their punishment and learned their lesson. Unfortunately, this is not the case most of the time. Once these inmates are released most of them end up re-offending and going back to prison, this is called recidivism. It looks follows the inmates three years after they are released and sees if they get reoffend and go back to prison with a new sentence. The Bureau of Justice did a survey to see how many offenders went back to prison after they were released.
V. PRISON REFORMS The main part of this research paper is the reforms for the conditions of prison and make prison a better place for prisoner and make an alternative for incarceration. The prison Reform for prevention of overcrowding in prisons: A ten-point method for reducing the overcrowding in the prisons all over the world, these points are1: 1. Collect and use data to inform a rational, humane and cost-effective use of prison.
