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Horizontal Evolution And Vertical Evolution Of Antibiotic Resistance

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Antibiotic resistance occurring naturally is obvious. Genes for resistance to antibiotics, like antibiotics themselves, are prehistoric [13]. It is the nature of every living organism to be nature driven resistant with time. In a study, few factors are identified to be responsible for the evolution of antibiotic resistance. Bacterial fitness, infection dynamics, cross-resistance, co-selection, horizontal gene transfer (HGT), epistasis together can predict the AR [14]. Bacterial fitness is defined as the relative ability to survive, reproduce and propagate in an environment. Bacterial fitness depends on Survival assays in vitro in different conditions (stationary phase of growth cycle, different drug concentrations), Growth rate in different …show more content…

In two diverse ways evolution of AR occurs: Vertical evolution and Horizontal evolution. In vertical evolution, mutations that enhance antibiotic tolerance are selected for and transmitted to the progeny, where as in horizontal evolution, antibiotic resistance genes are acquired from other bacteria, through one of the ways of conjugation, transduction or transformation, and are subsequently transmitted to the progeny [Fig-2]. Horizontal evolution contributes to most of current resistance problems. When resistance to one drug confers resistance to other drugs is called cross-resistance. It is the tolerance to a usually toxic substance because of exposure to a similarly acting substance. Co-resistance refers to the presence of resistance to more than one class of antibiotics in the same bacterial strain as might occur on a plasmid. Mutation rate is one of the crucial factors for predicting bacterial fitness as well as resistance. It is responsible for genetic heterogeneity. Bacterial population size affect resistance as well as bacterial fitness. Bacterial population sizes in infected hosts seem to be >108 bacteria per infection site [14]. The AR is also conferred by the resistance mechanism and the conditions under which resistance is measured. Bacterial fitness is also affected using increasing concentrations of antibiotic. The existence of genes in bacterial genomes that generate resistance by itself is intrinsic resistance. Many bacteria have this resistance [15]. Gene pickup, heterologous expression, HGT, and mutation are associated with resistance development

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The erythromycin resistance gene is carried by Tn4351. erythromycin resistance colonies were transfer to LB agar containing 200µgml-1 thrimethoprim. Non of the colonies could grow in this medium and no free vector (R751) was obtained in plasmid miniprep. This indicates that no replication of R751 occurred. Colony blot hybridization was done separately to discover if Tn4351 and/or R751 had inserted into the chromosome of F. chinesis.

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Large-scale deletions can occur in the genome of certain bacteria. In Salmonella enterica, scientists found that more genome deletions occurred when the mismatch repair mechanism was mutated (Nilsson et al. 2005). Deleting parts of the genome can result in changes in the organism’s fitness (Nilsson et al. 2005). These two processes affecting the genome are tied to increased fitness.

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To begin, during this lab experiment, genetic transformation was successfully carried out. After observing the agar plates, it was found that only the plate with ampicillin and no pGLO plasmid did not grow any of the E.coli bacteria. All three of the other plates grew the E.coli bacteria, however it grew differently in each plate. In the control plate where the pGLO plasmid, ampicillin, and arabinose were not present, the bacteria grew in the pattern that it was spread in originally. In the two other plates, bacteria grew in colonies that eventually joined together due to prolonged time in the incubator.

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Introduction A mutation is a heritable change that is passed from the mother cell to progeny cells. Mutations may lead to good, bad or neutral phenotypic changes in the organism. They may occur spontaneously as in random DNA replicative errors or may be induced by mutagenic chemicals or radiation. Besides mutations, another way that bacteria achieve gene diversity is through the three known mechanisms for intercellular gene transfer.

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All samples except for Penicillin and the B.Cereus sample for Ampicillin were susceptible to the antibiotics based upon the Zone Diameter Interpretive Standards for Organisms Other Than

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Afterwards, with the use of Glimmer 3.02 and BLAST, gene prediction and annotation were completed with another plasmid, pHN122-1, as a reference. To confirm the role of the gene that caused polymyxin resistance and contained mcr-1, the gene and its sequence were place into a cloning vector pUC18 that yielded pUC18-mcr-1. With this yield and electroporation, it was used to transform an E.coli strain, revealing its ability to confer colistin resistance. Q3D:

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In playing with these particular conditions, I found that some conditions could make both strains coexist relatively well in the antibiotic region of the simulation. This experiment is so scientifically interesting in that the results of this experiment should tell us with whether high-mutation rates or low mutation rates impart a competitive advantage to a certain strain in an antibiotic environment. This be applied to predict which strains of bacteria are more likely to thrive when new antibiotics are developed. With the question found, an experimental design was developed to address this question.

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Antibiotic resistance occurs when bacteria reformat themselves in order to become unaffected by the drugs or substances created to terminate them (About Antimicrobial Resistance). They gain resistance to the drugs which causes the drugs to be ineffective of use and leads to more harm. Antibiotic resistance commonly occurs within patients because of physicians misusing or overusing antibiotics. This creates a common resistance to patients and resulting in the constant creation for new antibiotics that would treat the bacteria (Antibiotic Resistance). The main conflict generally evolves from medical stewardship where physicians have the responsibility to optimally heal their patients to their best efforts (Medical Ethics and the Stewardship

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Where natural selection occurs when a portion of the population dies off due to the ampicillin, while the rest of the population manage to survive when carrying a resistant gene. As the continuation of survival, the E. coli will develop an immunity against the ampicillin. Making it difficult to eliminate, while it multiplies for a new population of resistant E. coli. When the bacterium become resistant against the antibiotic, patients with the infection will take a longer time to recover to fight off the

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The bacterium is resistant to many antibiotic therapies, which makes

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The theory of evolution also has a purpose in today’s world, more specifically in the study of organism’s immunity. Today antibiotics are very common, their main use is to get rid of viral infections. Although, scientists are finding, due to overusing antibiotics many viruses are becoming resistant to them. The more antibiotics get used the more bacteria and viruses become resistant to antibiotics and soon bacteria and viruses will resist all antibiotics. (“Frequently Asked Questions…” np).

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Natural Selection and its Correlation to Human Diseases Infections pathogens are the strongest forces that act against the human population. As migrations and cultural changes occurred in the past, individuals have become exposed to dangerous new pathogens. Host genetics influences resistance to infectious diseases and contributes to common diseases that show geographical disparities. An understanding of interaction between the host and the pathogen can inform the development of new medicines and therapies for those with infectious diseases.

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This method is used in the engineering of proteins and allows the reproduction of molecules to enhance and create products that are important for human health and medicine (Orencia 2001, Bull and Wichman 2001). Directed evolution mimics the process of natural selection but in the laboratory. It has been specifically useful in predicting antibiotic resistance and in the engineering of antibiotics. For example, a study by Orencia and colleagues (2001), used directed evolution to predict future mutations which lead to increased resistance to antibiotics. Being able to create variants of existing molecules and selecting desired properties allows for the creation and enhancement of products beneficial to human health.

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INTRODUCTION Antibiotic as is any chemical or drug that can be used to effectively either halt the growth of, destroy toxins from or destroy the entire organism. They are said to be narrow or wide/extended in their range of activity depending on if they act on a limited number of organisms or a vast number of organisms respectively. Antibiotics resistance occurs when a microbe or a group of microbes develop a mechanism to reduce the potency or efficacy of a drug which was once effective as its treatment.[1] Most antibiotics in the market today usually target an exclusive biology of an organism in such a way that the drug will affect the organism specifically and do little or no harm to the host, so in any event an organism mutates genes coding

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This is undeniable because of many examples such as the many strains of bacteria that now contain antibiotic

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