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Kant's 1962: The Structure Of Scientific Revolutions

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Prior to Kuhn’s 1962, “The Structure of Scientific Revolutions”, Karl Popper and Donald Campbell agreed the existence of specific thought processes derived from the evolutionary theory but, expanded their thinking when determining the scientific method is social (requiring language leading to social interactions which leads to rational endeavors or cognition), according to Wettersten (2016). This advanced from earlier thinking that scientists’ observations were the source of all knowledge (Wettersten). Thomas S. Kant (1962), on the other hand, felt the theories, facts, and methods scientists were compiling were neither historically organized nor were the scientists of a specific field, being educated in a rigorous and rigid manner. Kant believed that normal science problems did not lead to new findings, rather it was addressing only the theoretical side of science (Hacking, 2012) whereby research data was being made to fit in with the existing knowledge. Kant introduces …show more content…

In further explanation, Kant says that a scientific community is comprised of the “practitioners of a scientific specialty” or what he refers to as the “sociological” aspect. The second part of his definition of paradigm is referred to as “exemplary past achievements”. In simplistic terms, using psychologists or the American Psychological Association (APA) as a specific scientific community, a paradigm would the APA and the science that indicates the Anger-Infused Ultimatum Game is a valid paradigm to induce and assess anger (Gilam, Abend, Shani, Ben-Zion, & Hendler, 2018) making this into a tradition or standard. An anomaly, by definition, is something that deviates from what is standard, normal, or expected. It is Kant’s recognition of anomalies that leads to paradigm shifts and

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During the sixteenth and seventeenth century, many scientists had developed a new perspective on the world around them. Scientists such as Galileo and Copernicus envisioned a world where natural phenomenons could be proved through experimentation. Furthermore, the work of scientists during this time period were affected by the approval of political figures, the support from influential members of the church, and social factors that influenced the development and acceptance of new theories. To powerful political figures, scientific theories were regarded as an opportunity to gain power and money.

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Social Darwinism and new discoveries of science began to fill the minds of people

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Scientists take the unknown and make it known. The audience will better understand the scientific method if it seems logical. Including examples of Einstein, accepting scientific theories, and designing experiments show that the basis of Barry’s argument is factual. “Einstein refused to accept his own theory until his predictions were tested,” showing even the best of the best scientists study with uncertainty. Barry’s appeal to logos helps characterize the intellectual side of science.

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As time went from the 16th century to the 18th century, the Renaissance thinking transformed to the Scientific Revolution. Soon, it would enable a worldview in which people were not invoking the principles of religion as often as the Renaissance. As an example, these natural philosophers, known as scientists today, developed a new thinking in which the world was no longer geocentric. The thought of an Earth-centered universe as the Bible would say, transformed as heliocentric or in other words Sun-centered. Within this period, Scientists were starting to understand the world’s functions, for they created experiment methods incorporating discipline, mathematics, and the essential Scientist communication.

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The Scientific Revolution created conflicts that developed in societies with the birth of modern science. There were many disputes with modern science. Modern Science was distinctive from Science created previous to this era. “ In the 1500s and 1600s, some startling discoveries radically changed the way Europeans viewed the physical world,” (pg. 54). The Catholic Church did not like how the people were believing what these new scientists were theorizing and not what they believed.

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During the 16th and 17th century, Europe had just experienced the Age of Exploration and the Renaissance which encouraged people to continue to question old ideas and seek out answers on their own. The printing press is now a tool to spread new ideas like wildfire, assuring that anything published will be widely seen. In addition, nation states are competing for power and wealth and there’s no better way to do that than to learn about the sciences to create new ways to solve problems, thus making money and gaining influence in the world. This is what started the Scientific Revolution, a movement where scientists challenged old ideas and came to their own conclusions by experimenting with and studying their surroundings. While politicians and

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The Scientific Revolution showed that a rise in observations and conclusions became an acceptable source of knowledge and truth, where it had been less so in earlier

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The moon revolves around the Earth, and objects fall because of gravity. At one point, during the 17th and 18th century, this new concept, and much more like it, was the talk of the town. This time period was called the scientific revolution, where philosophers and scientists questioned the views on the world resulting in unfamiliar discoveries and the creation of new ideas. Science has influenced culture, religion, and government during this time as it made its crucial impact for their different way of thinking. Science was an important factor when it comes to progress within their society as there were many new findings.

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Levitt and Dubner classify Freakonomics as a book having “no such unifying theme” (14), but all the unique topics discussed throughout the text connect back together in order to show the hidden side of human nature. The argument that the wide variety of topics and their abstract descriptions all link together draws the attention of a large audience and connects to issues that society is currently facing or has recently confronted. Freakonomics is organized as an argumentative piece that asserts that “commerce without morality,” or the conducting of business without a sense of what is right or wrong, is triggered by human actions that are led by incentives and causes changes in the economy. Levitt and Dubner do not explicitly state their

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The Scientific Revolution “refers to historical changes in thought & belief, to changes in social & institutional organization, that unfolded in Europe between roughly 1550-1700” (Hatch). This revolution was a time to replace

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Cheerleading could easily become a recognized sport. There will need to be clear definitions, standard rules, safety regulations, competition rules, and judging regulations. When cheerleading becomes a sport then the athletes that compete would achieve higher recognition that they do now and become entitled to full college scholarships. The benefits to making cheerleading a standard sport outweigh the costs. Competitive cheerleaders are required to acquire many skills before they can get chosen for a squad and compete.

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There were scientific findings before the 16th century and there were more to follow the 18th century. Shapin’s thesis covers that there was no specific scientific distinction between the 17th century and the rest of time for this period to stand out and be a revolution but he explains that the Scientific Revolution is more of a process. Shapin still believes that the scientific findings of this time can be considered revolutionary. Shapin explains that “Science remains whatever it is-certainly the most reliable body of natural knowledge we have got” (165) to show that he still understands how important science and the findings in science are to the world and civilization.

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“God, who has given the world to men in common, has also given them reason to make use of it to the best advantage of life and convenience” (Locke, 35). The Scientific Revolution concentrated on understanding the physical world through astronomical and mathematical calculations, or testable knowledge. The Enlightenment focused more on “Spreading of faith in reason and in universal rights and laws” (Worlds Together, Worlds Apart, 535). While the Scientific Revolution preceded the Enlightenment, both time periods sought to limit and challenge the power of the Church, through the spread of science, reason and intellect, and political philosophies. The Scientific Revolution began with Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1542) and Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) wanting to understand the movement of the planets beyond what they authorities had told them.

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CANDIDE AND ENLIGHTENMENT In this essay, I will read Candide in the light of Enlightenment philosophy and also with reference to Kant's answer to the question “What is Enlightenment?” Although Candide (1759) and the short essay by Kant “What is Enlightenment?” were written during different decades of eighteenth century but both of them reflect the age of Enlightenment in their works. This essay is divided into two parts: Part I discusses about the age of the Enlightenment and Kant's essay on Enlightenment, Part II discusses Candide in the context of Part I where Voltaire’s views against optimism and his character Candide's journey towards the Enlightenment are discussed.

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The German philosopher Immanuel Kant is considered to be a central figure of contemporary philosophy. Kant argued that fundamental concepts, structure human experience and that reason is the foundation of morality. In Kant’s 1784 essay “What is Enlightenment” he briefly outlined his opinions on what Enlightenment is, the difficulties to enlightenment and how individuals attain enlightenment. Kant defined enlightenment as “Man’s release from his self-incurred tutelage” (Kant 1) and the “Courage to use his own reason.

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