Although initially welcomed, their subsequent reception varied. In 14th century Ragusa (Dubrovnik) they were free citizens (albeit low on the social scale), while in Kosovo, Moldavia and Wallachia they were enslaved. The emergence of the nation state in the 16th century brought widespread intolerance.6 France and England barred them entry and Sweden, Denmark and Portugal expelled them. Throughout the 17th century, punitive policies were widely adopted, such as restrictions upon trade and shelter, prohibition of traditional dress or the speaking of Romani, and restrictions on Roma gatherings. Penalties included death and corporal